Типы праязыков ностратической (в широком смысле) филы

Фонетико-грамматические обзоры по афразийским и евразийским праязыкам

Главная > Типология языков > Типы языков афразийцев и евразийцев

Праязыки: А | Б | В | Г | Д | Е | Ж | З | И | Й | К | Л | М | Н | О | П | С | Т | У | Ф | Х | Ц | Ч | Э | Ю | Я


Анг	Ита	Исп	Эсп

Здесь представлены краткие справки по фонетике и грамматике языков Ностратической суперсемьи, взятые с проекта глобальной этимологической базы данных "Вавилонская башня", основанную Сергеем Анатольевичем Старостиным. Эти сведения будут затем размещаться в каждом праязыковом этимологическом словнике.

Сама же база по ностратической этимологии составлена С. А. Старостиным по основным ностратическим словарям (Иллич-Свитыч, Долгопольский, Бомхард). Она включает также ряд новых этимологий, предложенных самим С. А. Старостиным и другими участниками Московской школы компаративистики. База находится в довольно сыром состоянии, т. к. в сравнительной фонологии ностратических языков остается еще немало неясных моментов.

Сергей Анатольевич считал, что собственно ностратическими языками (их он называл "евразийскими") являются все обычно включаемые туда языки, кроме афразийских и эламского. Здесь же принята концепция не в узком, а в широком смысле - с упомянутыми эламским и семито-хамитскими языками.

Всего здесь представлено X языковых систем, происходящих от праностратического языка, распределённых по 13 семьям и изолированным языкам:

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Индо-хеттской семьи (Indo-Hittite)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Уральской семьи (Uralic)
Краткие типологические обзоры юкагирских языков (Yukaghir)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Алтайской семьи (Altaic)
Краткие типологические обзоры айнских диалектов (Ainu)
Краткие типологические обзор нивхского языка (Gilyak, Nivx, Nivkh)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Чукче-камчатской семьи (Chukchi-Kamchatkan)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Эскимо-алеутской семьи (Eskimo-Aleut)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Дравидической семьи (Dravidian)
Краткий типологический обзор эламитского языка (Elamite)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Картвельской семьи (Kartvelian)
Обзоры типов языков, возможно, входящих в Евразийскую макросемью (этрусский)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Афразийской семьи (Afro-Asiatic)

В базе, правда, юкагирские языки отнесены к уральским, а эламский - к эламо-дравидским (но все остальные дравидские к эламо-дравидским не отнесены).

Сама же база по ностратической этимологии составлена С. А. Старостиным по основным ностратическим словарям (Иллич-Свитыч, Долгопольский, Бомхард). Она включает также ряд новых этимологий, предложенных самим С. А. Старостиным и другими участниками московской школы компаративистики. База находится в довольно сыром состоянии, т. к. в сравнительной фонологии ностратических языков остается еще немало неясных моментов.

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Индо-хеттской семьи

Языки индоевропейской семьи ведут свою историю от праиндоевропейского языка.

~~Number:~~ 1652: Language: Proto-Indo-European; Location: Ukraine; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European Grammar: Meillet, A. 1937. Introduction à l'étude des langues indo-européennes. Paris. Hudson-Williams, T. 1935. A Short Introduction to the Study of çomparative Grammar (Indo-European). Cardiff: Univ of Wales Press.; Other Sources: CTIL 9, 122.; Consonant system: p t̪ k kʷ ʔ (b) b̤ d̪ d̪̣ ɡ ɡ̤ ɡʷ ɡ̤ʷ s h m n̪ l r Stops: p (b) b̤ t̪ d̪ d̪̤ k ɡ ɡ̤ kʷ ɡʷ ɡ̤ʷ ʔ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cʷ k ɡ ɡ̤ Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Diphthongs: ei oi ai eu ou au; Syllable: mˈ nˈ lˈ rˈ; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3 *6d *6; Syntax: SOV AN; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

Обзоры типологий анатолийских языков

~~Number:~~ 1647: Language: Hittite; Location: Turkey; Population: extinct (c. 1300 B.C.); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian Grammar: Sturtevant, Edgar H. 1951. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. New Haven: Yale Univ Press.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ ts s x h ɣ m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: ts Fricatives: s x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ ?; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: common(=m+f) neuter; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1648: Language: Palaic; Location: Turkey; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1649: Language: Lydian; Location: Turkey; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1650: Language: Luwian; Location: Turkey; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian Dictionary: Laroche, Emmanuel. 1959. Dictionnaire de la langue louvite. Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve.; Consonant system:; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: anim inan Demonstratives: 2; Syntax: SOV AN GN

~~Number:~~ 1651: Language: Lycian; Location: Turkey; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

Обзоры типологий армянских языков

~~Number:~~ 1653: Language: Classical Armenian Alternate Name: Grabar; Location: Armenia; Population: extinct (c. 1300 B.C.); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Armenian Dictionary: Meillet, A. 1936. Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique. Vienna: Mekhitharistes. Grammar: Jensen, Hans. 1959. Altarmenische Grammatik. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Tumanjan, E. G. 1971. Drevnearmjanskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka. Damme, Dirk van. 1974. A Short Classical Armenian Grammar. Fribourg: Univ Press. Mann, Stuart E. 1968. An Armenian Historical Grammar in Latin Characters. London: Luzac.; Other Sources: Mann, Stuart E. 1963. Armerian and Indo-European. London: Luzac.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh b d̪ ɡ ts tsh č čh dz ɡ̌ (f) s š x h v z ž (ɣ) m n̪ l lɯ ɾ r Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ Affricates: ts tsh dz č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x (ɣ) h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o ɛ ɔ a Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Diphthongs: aj aw ea ew iw oj ja eaj iaj; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: VSO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N N-POSS/POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1654: Language: Armenian Dialect: East; Location: Armenia; Population: 6 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Armenian Grammar: Tumanjan, E. G. 1966. "Armjanskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 562-98.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: ph pʔ t̪h tʔ kh kʔ b d̪ ɡ tsh tsʔ čh čʔ dz ɡ̌ f s̪ š x h v z̪ ž ɣ m n̪ l ɾ r Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h tʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ Affricates: tsh tsʔ dz čh čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Stress: final; Noun
Number: s (d) p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST

~~Number:~~ 1655: Language: Armenian Dialect: West; Location: E Turkey; Population: 6 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Armenian; Other Sources: AL 7:8 WALS; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž ɣ m n l ɾ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Stress: phonemic; Syntax: SOV AN GN; Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST

Обзоры типологий тохарских языков

~~Number:~~ 1656: Language: Tocharian A; Location: NW China (Turkestan); Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Tocharian Dictionary: Windekens, A. J. van. 1941. Lexique étymologique des dialectes tokhariens. Louvain: Muséon. Grammar: Sieg, Emil and Wilhelm Siegling. 1931. Tocharische Grammatik. Gøttingen: Dandenhoe.; Other Sources: Windekens, A. J. van. 1944. Morphologie comparée du tokharien. Louvain: Muséon. Zimmer, Stefan. 1976. Tocharische Bibliographie, 1959-1975. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Adams, Douglas Q. 1978. "Ablaut and Umlaut in the Tocharian Vowel System, " JAOS 98, 446-50.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k ts č s š m n ñ ŋ l ʎ r Stops: p t̪ c k Affricates: ts č Fricatives: s š Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ā ū Nasal Vowels: ṽ; Noun; Number: s p; Pronouns: 1mf 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mf; Syntax: SOV AN GN; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1657: Language: Tocharian B; Location: NW China (Turkestan); Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Tocharian Grammar: GD: Krause, Wolfgang and Werner Thomas. 1960, 1964. Tocharisches Elementarbuch, 2 vols. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.; Other Sources: Windekens, A. J. van. 1976. Le tocharien confronté avec les autres langues indo-européenes, 2 vols. Louvain: Centre International de Dialectologie Générale.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k ts č s š m n ñ ŋ l ʎ r Stops: p t̪ c k Affricates: ts č Fricatives: s š Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj p k ts m Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ā ū Nasal Vowels: ṽ Diphthongs: ai oi au āu; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f; Pronouns: 1mf 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mf; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

Обзоры типологий арийских языков

~~Number:~~ 1658: Language: Sanskrit Dialect: Classical; Location: N India; Population: c. 400 B.C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic Dictionary: Monier-Williams, Monier. 1976. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Apte, Vaman Shivram. 1974. The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Grammar: Gonda, Jan. 1966. A Concise Elementary Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. University, Alabama: Univ of Alabama Press. Renou, Louis. 1968. Grammaire sanskrite. Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve.; TextBooks: Bhandarkar, Ramkrishna Gopal. 1966. First Book of Sanskrit. Bombay: Karnatak. Allen, W. S. 1953. Phonetics in Ancient India. London: Oxford Univ Press. Emeneau, M. B. and B. A. van Nooten. 1968. Sanskrit Sandhi and Exercises. Berkeley: Univ of Califonia Press.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh c ch k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ d̤̣ ɟ ɟ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ s̪ ṣ š h v ɦ m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l̪ r Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ c ch ɟ ɟ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Fricatives: v s̪ ṣ š h ɦ Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: lˈ rˈ Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3mfn *6dmfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1659: Language: Sanskrit Dialect: Vedic; Location: N India; Population: c. 1,000 BC; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic Grammar: Macdonell, A. A. 1910. Vedic Grammar. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s̪ ṣ š h v m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l r Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v s̪ ṣ š h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but h l r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: mˈ lˈ rˈ; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3mfn *6dmfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV AN GN NUM-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1660: Language: Sanskrit Dialect: Pali; Location: India (Bihar); Population: c. 400 B. C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic Grammar: Higashimoto, Keiki, 1967. An Elementary Grammar of the Pali Language. Tokyo: Research Institute of the Pali Literature, Komazawa Univ.; TextBooks: Warder, A. K. 1974. Introduction to Pali. London: Pali Text Society.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s̪ v ɦ m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l̪ ḷ ḷ̤ r Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v s̪ ɦ Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ḷ ḷ̤ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1661: Language: Romany Dialect: Iranian; Location: NW Iran; Population: 1 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Romany; Other Sources: Windfuhr, Gernot L. 1970. "European Gypsy in Iran: A First Report," AL 12, 271-92.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh b d ɡ č čh ɡ̌ f s š x h v z m n l r Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š x h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ē ā ō Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Articles: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1662: Language: Romany Dialect: Czechoslovakian; Location: Czechoslovakia; Population: 1 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Romany; Other Sources: Miltner, Vladimı́r. 1965. "The Morphologic Strutcure of a New Indo-Aryan Language of Czechoslovakia," IL 26, 106-31.; Consonant system: p ph t th c ch k kh b d ɟ ɡ ts č čh dz ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž m n ñ l ʎ r Stops: p ph b t th d c ch ɟ k kh ɡ Affricates: ts dz č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ē ā ō Stress: penult Articles: def; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N

~~Number:~~ 1663: Language: Romany Dialect: Baltic; Location: Estonia; Population: 1 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Romany Grammar: Venttsel', T. V. 1966. "Tsyganskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 630-51.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh b d̪ ɡ (t̪s) č (d̪z) ɡ̌ (f) s̪ š x v z̪ ž ɣ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ Affricates: (t̪s) (d̪z) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj all but ph ts dz č ɡ̌ f z š ž Glides: j; Vowel system: i u ǝ o ɑ Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO AN DN NUM-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1664: Language: Romany Dialect: Wales; Location: Wales; Population: 1 million (extinct); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Romany; Other Sources: Lockwood, W. B. 1975. Languages of the British Isles Past and Present. London: Andre Duetsch.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š x h v ð z ž m n ŋ l l̥ r r̥ Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l l̥ Vibrants: r r̥ Modified Consonants: c̄ r Glides: j w w̥; Vowel system: i u e o ɔ a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all?; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1665: Language: Maldivian; Location: Maldive Islands; Population: 130,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Sinhalese-Maldivian; Other Sources: De Silva, M. W. Sugathapala. 1969. "The Phonological Efficiency of the Maldivian Writing system," AL 11, 199-208.; Consonant system: p t ṭ k b mb d nd ḍ nḍ ɡ ŋɡ f s š h v z m n (ñ) l ḷ r Stops: p b mb t d nd ṭ d nḍ k ɡ ŋɡ Fricatives: f v s z š h Nasals: m n (ñ) Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: I ʋ ɛ ɔ a Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ɐ̄ ū ō Diphthongs: ai au ei eu ui ou oi

~~Number:~~ 1666: Language: Sinhalese; Location: Sri Lanka; Population: 10 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Singhalese-Maldivian Dictionary: Malalasekera, G. P. 1967. English-Sinhalese Dictionary. Colombo, Ceylon: M. D. Gunasena.; TextBooks: Garusinghe, Dayaratne. 1962. Sinhalese: The Spoken Idiom. Munich: Max Hueber.; Other Sources: Coates, William A. and M. W. S. de Silva. 1960. "The Segemental Phonemes of Sinhalese," Univ of Ceylon Review 18, 163-75. Gair, James W. 1966. "Colloquial Sinhalese Inflectional Categories and Parts of Speech," IL 27, 31-45. Gair, James W. 1970. Colloquial Sinhalese Clause Structures. The Hague: Mouton. Karunatilake, W. S. and S. Suseendirarajah. 1973. "Phonology of Sinhalese and Sri Lanka Tamil," IL 34, 180-90.; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k b mb d̪ nd̪ ḍ nḍ ɡ ŋɡ č ɡ̌ s (š) h v m n ñ l r Stops: p b mb t̪ d̪ nd̪ ṭ ḍ nḍ k ɡ ŋɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s (š) h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: I ʋ ɛ ǝ ɔ æ a Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: anim inan Demonstratives: 3 + ref Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3hmfi *6hai 3: hum, masc anim, fem anim, inan; 6: hum, an, inan politeness: numerous second person pronouns implying various degrees of respect and differential status.; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N (1)/N-NUM (2,3,...) POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1667: Language: Bashkarik; Location: Pakistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1940. "Notes on Bashkarik," Acta Orientalia 18, 206-57.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b d ḍ ɡ ts ṭs ṭsh č čh ɡ̌ s ṣ š x h z ž ɣ m n ṇ ŋ l ʎ r ṛ Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: ts ṭs ṭsh č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z ṣ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e (ǝ) o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ē ↔ō ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ai; Tones: ris fall Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV GN DN POSS-N

~~Number:~~ 1668: Language: Maiya; Location: Pakistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central; Other Sources: WPF; Consonant system:; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6

~~Number:~~ 1669: Language: Tirahi; Location: E Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1934. "Notes on Tirahi, " Acta Orientalia 12, 161-89.; Consonant system:; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Syntax: SOV GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1670: Language: Torwali; Location: Pakistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1930. "Notes on Torwali," Acta orientalia 8, 294-310.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 WALS; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b d ḍ ɡ č čh ɡ̌ s š x h z ž ɣ m n l r ṛ Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j w; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1671: Language: Wotapuri; Location: Afghanistan; Population: 2,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central Grammar: DG: Buddruss, Georg. 1960. Die Sprache von Wotˈapur und Katˈarqala. Bonn: Orientalischen Seminars, Univ Bonn.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b d ḍ ɡ ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh dz ɡ̌ (f) s (ṣ) š x h z ɣ m n ṇ l ɬ̣ r ṛ Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: ts tsh dz ṭs ṭsh č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) s z (ṣ) š x ɣ h Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l ɬ̣ Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all Diphthongs: aī au āē aū āī āu āū eā ēu īu ui ūī ūē uō ūo nasal diphthongs; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1672: Language: Kalasha; Location: N Pakistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Chitral; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1673: Language: Khowar; Location: N Pakistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Chitral; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1674: Language: Dameli; Location: N Pakistan (S Chitral); Population: 5,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar Grammar: GD: Morgenstierne, G. 1942. "Notes on Dameli," Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap 12, 115-98.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh (q) b d ḍ ɡ ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh s ṣ š x (χ) (h) z (ẓ) ž (ɣ) m n ṇ (ŋ) l r ɹ́ ɹ́ is a palatal fricative. Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ (q) Affricates: ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh Fricatives: s z ṣ (ẓ) š ž x (ɣ) (χ) (h) Nasals: m n ṇ (ŋ) Laterals: l Vibrants: r ɹ́ (palatal fricative) Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Back Vowels: u ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃; Tones: lo-ris hi-fall; Noun
Number: s (p) Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 1=4; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1675: Language: Gawar-bati; Location: NE Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar Grammar: DG: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1950. Notes on Gawar-bati. Oslo.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b d ḍ ɡ ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č ɡ̌ s ṣ š (x) h z ž (ɣ) m n ṇ l ɬ r ṛ Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z ṣ š ž (x) (ɣ) h Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ ṭ ḍ l ... Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ) Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃ Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C); Noun
Number: s (p) (pl restricted to animate beings and relatives) Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1676: Language: Shumashti; Location: NE Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1677: Language: Nangalami; Location: NE Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1678: Language: Pashai Dialect: Southwest; Location: NE Afghanistan; Population: 100,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 3.; Other Sources: AL 7:8.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh q b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ (t̪s) ṭs ṭsh č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s̪ ṣ š x h z̪ ẓ ž ɣ m n̪ ṇ (ŋ) l̪ r ṛ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ q Affricates: (t̪s) ṭs ṭsh č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s̪ z̪ ṣ ẓ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ (ŋ) Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (e) (æ) Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u (o) Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai āi oi ui ūi au āu ōu; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1679: Language: Pashai Dialect: Southeast; Location: NE Afghanistan; Population: 100,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 3.; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k q b d̪ ḍ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s̪ ṣ š x h z̪ ɣ m n̪ ṇ ŋ l̪ l̪̥ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ ṣ š x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l̪ l̪̥ Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ǣ ā ū ō; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: GN N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1680: Language: Pashai Dialect: Northwest; Location: NE Afghanistan; Population: 100,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 3.; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ ṭh k kh q b d̪ ḍ (d̪̤) č čh ɡ̌ f s̪ ṣ š x h z̪ (ẓ) ž ɣ m n̪ ṇ ŋ l̪ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ (d̪̤) ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ q Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ ṣ (ẓ) š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: (m f) (gender is present in only some NW dialects.) Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1681: Language: Pashai Dialect: Northeast; Location: NE Afghanistan; Population: 100,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 3.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k b d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ɡ ɡ̤ t̪s ṭs (ṭsh) č čh ɡ̌ s̪ ṣ š h v z̪ ž m n̪ ṇ ŋ l̪ r ṛ Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ k ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: t̪s ṭs (ṭsh) č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ ṣ š ž h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ ? Diphthongs: diphthongs; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1682: Language: Dumaki; Location: N Pakistan (Hunza); Population: 300; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Shina Grammar: DG: Lorimer, D. L. R. 1939. The Dumaki Language. Nijmegen: Dekker & van de Vegt.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k q b d ḍ ɡ ts tsh č̣ č̣h č čh ɡ̣̌ ɡ̌ f s ṣ̌ š (x) z ẓ̌ (ɣ) m n (ṇ) ñ ŋ l r Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: ts tsh č̣ č̣h ɡ̣̌ č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z ṣ̌ ẓ̌ š (x) (ɣ) Nasals: m n (ṇ) ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i I e ɛ æ Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a Back Vowels: u ʋ o Nasal Vowels: ṽ ? Diphthongs: æi æI au ɔi; Tones: hi lo; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1683: Language: Phalura; Location: N Pakistan; Population: 1,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Shina Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1941. Notes on Phalura. Oslo.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b d ḍ ɡ ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh dz ḍz ɡ̌ s ṣ š x h z ž (ɣ) m n ṇ l r ṛ Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: ts tsh dz ṭs ṭsh ḍz č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z ṣ š ž x (ɣ) h Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ai Stress: on first long syllable from end of word; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 6: 3 + that very distant, that above, that below; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1684: Language: Shina Alternate Name: Brokskat, Savi; Location: N Pakistan (Jammu); Population: 150,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Shina; Other Sources: AL 7:8 WALS; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b d ḍ ɡ ṭs ṭsh č čh ḍz ɡ̌ f s ṣ š h v z ẓ ž m n ṇ l r ṛ Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: ṭs ṭsh ḍz č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z ṣ ẓ š ž h Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j; Tones: lev lo-ris; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1685: Language: Kashmiri; Location: N India (Kashmir); Population: 3 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Shina; Other Sources: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1941. "The Phonology of Kashmiri," Acta Orientalia 19, 79-99. Kelkar, Ashok R. and Pran Nath Trisal. 1964. "Kashmiri Word Phonology: A First Sketch," AL 6:1, 13-22. Handoo, Jawaharlal. 1973. Kashmiri Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. AL 7:8 CTIL 5, 293. WPF; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b d̪ ḍ ɡ t̪s t̪sh č čh ɡ̌ s š h v z m n l r Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: t̪s t̪sh č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s z š h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj all but č čh ɡ̌ š j Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all (ɔ̄ marɡinal) Nasal Vowels: ẽ ǝ̃ ã ũ õ ɔ̃ ı̃̄ ẽ̄ ɨ̃̄ ǝ̃̄ ã̄ ũ̄ ȭ Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1686: Language: Marathi; Location: W India (Maharashtra); Population: 45 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South Dictionary: Deshpande, Madhav K. 1968. Marathi-English Dictionary. Poona: Suvichar Prakashan Mandal. Grammar: Apte, Mahadeo Laxman. 1962. A Sketch of Marathi Transformational Grammar. Madison: Univ of Wisconsin Diss.; Other Sources: James, A. Lloyd and S. G. Kanhere. 1928. "The Pronunciation of Marathi," BSOAS 4, 791-801. Kelkar, Ashok Ramchandra. 1958. The Phonology and Morphology of Marathi. Ithaca: Cornell Univ Diss.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ ts tsh č čh dz d̤z ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ f s ṣ š h v m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ l̪ ḷ ɾ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: ts tsh dz d̤z č ɡ̌ čh ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: f v s ṣ š h Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ḷ Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: ī ǝ̄ ū Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn politeness: + 2 pol; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1687: Language: Marathi Dialect: Kasargod; Location: S India ( N Kerala); Population: 45 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South; Other Sources: Ghatage, A. M. 1970. "Marathi of Kasargod," IL 31, 138-44. E; Consonant system: p t ṭ k b d ḍ ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) s (š) (h) v m n ṇ l ṛ̣ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s (š) (h) Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: ṛ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1688: Language: Marathi Dialect: Kunabi; Location: India ( W Maharashtra); Population: 45 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South Grammar: Ghatage, A. M. 1966. Kunabi of Mahad. Bombay: State Board of Literature and Culture.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ t̪s č čh d̪z d̪̤z ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ š h v v̤ m m̤ n n̤ ŋ l̪ l̪̤ r r̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: t̪s d̪z d̪̤z č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v v̤ s š h Nasals: m m̤ n n̤ ŋ Laterals: l̪ l̪̤ Vibrants: r r̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ɛ̄ ɔ̄; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3fF *6fF F=m+n; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N Num+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1689: Language: Konkani; Location: W India (Mysore); Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South Grammar: Ghatage, A. M. 1963. Konkani of South Kanara. Bombay: State Board for Literature and Culture. Ghatage, A. M. 1968. Konkani of Kankon. Bombay: State Board for Literature and Culture.; Other Sources: Katre, Lalita S. 1970. "Konkani Kinship Terms," IL 31, 149-61.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ t̪s č čh d̪z d̪̤z ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ f s̪ š h v v̤ m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ l̪ l̪̤ ḷ r Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: t̪s d̪z d̪̤z č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: f v v̤ s̪ š h Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l̪ l̪̤ ḷ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ǝ̄ ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1690: Language: Sindhi; Location: S Pakistan; Population: 7 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: Northwest Grammar: Jegorova, R. P. 1966. Jazyk sindxi. Moscow: Nauka.; Other Sources: Bordie, John G. 1958. A Descriptive Sindhi Phonology. Austin: Univ of Texas Diss. Rohra, S. K. 1971. "Sindhi, Kacchi, and Emigrant Sindhi," IL 32, 123-31.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ ɓ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɗ̣ ʄ ɡ ɡ̤ ɠ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ f s š x h v z ɣ m n ṇ ñ ŋ l ɾ ɾ̣ Stops: p ph b b̤ ɓ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ ɗ̣ ʄ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ ɠ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ h Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1691: Language: Sindhi Dialect: Katchi; Location: W India (Gujarat); Population: 7 million (400,000); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: Northwest; Other Sources: Rohra, S. K. 1971. "Sindhi, Kacchi, and Emigrant Sindhi," IL 32, 123-31.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh c ch k kh b ɓ d ḍ ɗ̣ ɟ ʄ ɡ ɠ s h m n ṇ ñ ŋ l r ṛ Stops: p ph b ɓ t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ ɗ̣ c ch ɟ ʄ k kh ɡ ɠ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f

~~Number:~~ 1692: Language: Lahnda; Location: NE Pakistan; Population: 15 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: Northwest; Other Sources: Bahri, Hardev. 1963. Lahndi Phonetics. Allahabad: Bharati Press.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ f s š x v z ɣ ɦ m n ṇ l ḷ r ɾ̣ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ ɦ Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄ ĩ̄ ẽ̄ ũ̄ ȭ ɑ̃̄ Diphthongs: diphthongs; Syntax: SOV NUM-N

~~Number:~~ 1693: Language: Parya; Location: Tajikistan; Population: 1,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1694: Language: Baluj Alternate Name: Jatt; Location: Afghanistan; Population: 1,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1695: Language: Punjabi Alternate Name: Panjabi; Location: NW India (Panjab); Population: 40 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central Grammar: Gill, Harjeet Singh and Henry A. Gleason, Jr. 1963. A Reference Grammar of Panjabi. HSL 3.; TextBooks: Gill, H. S. and H. A. Gleason, Jr. 1963. A Start in Panjabi. HSL 11.; Other Sources: Gill Harjeet Singh. 1960. "Panjabi Tonemics," AL 2:6, 11-8. Arun, Vidya Bhaskar. 1961. A Comparative Phonology of Hindi and Panjabi. Ludhiana, India: Panjabi Sahitya Akademi.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b d̪ ḍ ɡ č čh ɡ̌ (f) s̪ š v (z̪) ɦ m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l̪ ḷ r ɾ̣ Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ (z̪) š ɦ Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ḷ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ m n l v s Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all Modified Vowels: nasal harmony Diphthongs: Iǝ Io Iɔ Ia ʋa ǝi ǝe ǝu; Tones: hi-ris mid lo-fall Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 [*6] 6 only in oblique cases; in nominative case 3=6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1696: Language: Marwari Alternate Name: Shekhawati; Location: Pakistan; Population: 220,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1697: Language: Banjari Alternate Name: Lamani, Lambadi; Location: NW India; Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: PCSD IV, 4-5. WALS; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s h m n ṇ ŋ l ḷ r Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Nasal Vowels: ṽ all; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1698: Language: Malvi Alternate Name: Rajasthani; Location: NW India (Madhya Pradesh); Population: 22 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: Bhattacharya, Shefali. 1974. "Malvi Kinship Terms," IL 35, 119-28. E; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s v m n ṇ l ḷ r Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v s Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all Stress: non-phonemic; Syntax: SOV AN; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1699: Language: Gujarati; Location: WC India (Madhya Pradesh); Population: 23 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central Dictionary: Mazmudar, M. A., ed. 1969. Gala's Advanced Dictionary (English-Gujarati ). Gomtipur, India: Gala. Grammar: Cardona, George. 1965. A Gujarati Reference Grammar. Philadelphia: Univ of Pennsylvania Press.; TextBooks: Lambert, H. M. 1971. Gujarati Language Course. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.; Other Sources: Pandit, P. B. 1957. "Nasalization, Aspiration and Murmur in Gujarati," IL 17, 165-72. Paudit, Prabodh Bechardas. 1965. Phonemic and Morphemic Frequencies of the Gujarati Language. Poona: Deccan College. Dave, Radhekant. 1967. "A Formant Analysis of the Clear, Nasalized, and Murmured Vowels in Gujarati," IL 28, 1-30. CJIL 5, 117.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s š v ɦ m n̪ ṇ l ḷ ɾ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v s š ɦ Nasals: m n̪ ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Nasal Vowels: ĩ ɛ̃ ã ũ ɔ̃ Modified Vowels: v̤ all ṽ̤ all but e o Diphthongs: aI aʋ; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3 *6 politeness: 3 forms of 2: (1) fam, (2) pol, (3) formal.; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1700: Language: Bhili Alternate Name: Wagdi Dialect: Bahelia; Location: WC India (Madhya Pradesh); Population: 2.7 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: Srivastava, G. P. 1968. "Bahelia Phonology," IL 29, 67-79. E WPF; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s̪ h v m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ŋ l l̤ r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v s̪ h Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ŋ Laterals: l l̤ Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C); Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1701: Language: Gade Lohar; Location: India (Rajasthan); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: Sharma, Jagdish Chander. 1973. "Nominal and Verbal Inflection in the Dialect of the Gade Lohars," IL 34, 200-10.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s̪ ɦ m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ṇ̤ l̪ l̪̤ ḷ ḷ̤ r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s̪ ɦ Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ṇ̤ Laterals: l̪ l̪̤ ḷ ḷ̤ Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃; Noun
~~Number:~~ S P: Noun Classes: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N

~~Number:~~ 1702: Language: Khandeshi; Location: N India (Maharashtra); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1703: Language: Hindi Dialect: Bundeli; Location: N India (Madhya Pradesh); Population: 200 Million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central Grammar: Jaiswal M. P. 1962. A Linguistic Study of Bundeli. Leiden: E. J. Brill.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s̪ v ɦ m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ l l̤ r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v s̪ ɦ Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ Laterals: l l̤ Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ē ǝ̄ ɵ̄ ū ō ɑ̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6 politeness: various honorifics for 2; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1704: Language: Hindi; Location: NC India (Uttar Pradesh); Population: 200 Million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central Grammar: McGregor, R. S. 1977. Outline of Hindi Grammar. Delhi: Oxford Univ Press.; TextBooks: Bender, Ernest. 1967. Hindi Grammar and Reader. Philadelphia: Univ of Pennsylvania Press.; Other Sources: Mehrotra, Ramesh Chandra. 1964. "Hindi Phonemes," IL 25, 234-46. Arun, Vidya Bhaskar. 1961. A Comparative Phonology of Hindi and Panjabi. Ludhiana, India: Panjabi Sahitya Akademi.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh (q) b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ (f) s (ṣ) š (x) v (z) (ɣ) ɦ m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ l l̤ ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ (q) Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: (f) v s (z) (ṣ) š (x) (ɣ) ɦ Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ Laterals: l l̤ Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all Diphthongs: ai au ãi ãu Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 politeness: 2 has 3 forms: (1) pol, (2) fam, (3) intim.; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1705: Language: Hindi Dialect: Bangru; Location: N India (Haryana); Population: 200 Million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central Grammar: Singh, Jag Deva. 1970. A Descriptive Grammar of Bangru. Kurukshetra, India: Kurukshetra Univ.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s ɦ m n ṇ ŋ l ḷ r ɾ̣ Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s ɦ Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ṇ ŋ ɾ̣ ḷ h j w Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ɨ ʉ ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all Modified Vowels: nasal harmony; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+NUM+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1706: Language: Urdu; Location: Pakistan; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central Dictionary: Ferozsons Urdu-English Dictionary. n.d. Karachi: Ferozsons. DT: Bender, Ernest. 1967. Urdu Grammar and Reader. Philadelphia: Univ of Pennsylvania Press.; TextBooks: Bailey, T. Grahame. 1967. Teach Yourself Urdu. London: English Universities Press. Barker, Muhammad Abd-al-Rahman, et al. 1967. A Course in Urdu, 3 vols. Montreal: Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill Univ.; Other Sources: Bright, William and Saeed A. Khan. 1958. The Urdu Writing System. New York: American Council of Learned Societies.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ f s š x h v z (ž) ɣ m n̪ l ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̤̪ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: f v s z š (ž) x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I (ɛ) Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ) Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all Diphthongs: ai au ãi ãu; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 politeness: 3 forms of 2; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1707: Language: Dogri; Location: India Jammu); Population: 2.2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1708: Language: Western Pahari; Location: N India (Jammu); Population: 2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: Varma, Siddheshwar. 1936. "The Rudhari Dialect," IL 6, 128-96.; Consonant system: Modified Consonants: c̄; Tones: hi falling; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 4: this very near/this/that visible/that invisible Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5mf *3mf *6mf; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1709: Language: Garhwali; Location: N India ( N Uttar Pradesh); Population: 1 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central; Other Sources: Chandrasekhar, A. 1970. "The Phonemes of Garhwali," IL 31, 80-5. E; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh c ch k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɟ ɟ̣ ɡ ɡ̤ s h m n l r Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ d̤̣ c ch ɟ ɟ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ Stress: non-phonemic; Syntax: SOV; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1710: Language: Kumauni Alternate Name: Johari; Location: N India (Uttar Pradesh); Population: 1 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central Grammar: Apte, Mahadeo L. and D. P. Pattanayak. 1967. An Outline of Kumauni Grammar. Durham: Duke Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k b d̪ ḍ ɡ č ɡ̌ s̪ h m n̪ ṇ ŋ l ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s̪ h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ɛ̄ ā ū ɔ̄ Nasal Vowels: Ĩ ɛ̃ ǝ̃ ã ʋ̃ ɔ̃ ı̃̄ ɛ̃̄ ã̄ ũ̄ ȭ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C); Syntax: SOV AN

~~Number:~~ 1711: Language: Nepali; Location: Nepal; Population: 10 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: East-Central; TextBooks: Clark, T. W. 1963. Introduction to Nepali. Cambridge, Eng.: W. Heffer & Sons.; Other Sources: Southworth, Franklin C. 1967. Nepali Transformational Structure: A Sketch. Poona: Deccan College. Bandhu, C. M., et al. 1971. Nepali Segmental Phonology. Kirtipur, Nepal: SIL. Hari, Maria. 1973. "Tentative Systematic Organization of Nepali Sentences," in CSDP I, 203-58. Bandhu, Churamani. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Nepali," in CSDP II, 1-79.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ ts tsh dz d̤z s h m n̪ ŋ l ɾ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: ts tsh dz d̤z Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Nasal Vowels: ṽ all Diphthongs: ǝj ǝw ǝ̃j ǝ̃w; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 politeness: 2 has 3 forms.; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+NUM+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1712: Language: Awadhi; Location: NC India ( NW Madhya Pradesh); Population: 55 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: East-Central; Other Sources: Saksena, Baburam. 1971. Evolution of Awadhi. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s h ɦ m m̤ n n̤ l l̤ r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č ɡ̌ čh ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s h ɦ Nasals: m m̤ n n̤ Laterals: l l̤ Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ all but ǝ v̄̃ all but ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: non-phonemic (final/penult); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1713: Language: Bhojpuri Dialect: Tharu; Location: S Nepal; Population: 30 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: East-Central; Other Sources: Hugoniot, Richard D. and Austin Hale. 1973. "Contra-Expectancy Particles in Tharu Bhojpuri," in CSDP I, 377-87. PCSD, 6-7.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s h m m̥ n n̥ ṇ ŋ ŋ̥ l l̥ r r̥ Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m m̥ n n̥ ṇ ŋ ŋ̥ Laterals: l l̥ Vibrants: r r̥ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Nasal Vowels: ṽ all but ǝ; Syntax: SOV DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1714: Language: Bhojpuri Alternate Name: Bihari; Location: NE India (Bihar); Population: 30 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: East-Central; Other Sources: Tiwary, K. M. 1968. "The Echo-word Construction in Bhojpuri," AL 10:4, 32-8. Trammel, Robert L. 1971. "The Phonology of the Northern Standard Dialect of Bhojpuri," AL 13, 126-41. Singh, Kripa Shankar. 1972. "A Sketch of the Hierarchical Structure of Bhojpuri," IL 33, 42-58.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s h m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ r r̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r r̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C); Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N

~~Number:~~ 1715: Language: Maithili; Location: SE Nepal; Population: 30 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: East-Central; Other Sources: Jha, Subhadra. 1944. "Maithili Phonetics," IL 8,435-59. Davis, Alice I. 1973. "Maithili Sentences," in CSDP I, 259-319. Williams, Jennifer. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Maithili, " in PCSD II, 345-452.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s h m m̤ n n̤ ŋ l l̤ ɾ ɾ̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m m̤ n n̤ ŋ Laterals: l l̤ Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̤ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ Diphthongs: ǝi ǝu Stress: non-phonemic; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 politeness: 2 & 5 have 3 forms: (1) honorific, (2) mid-honorific, (3) non-honorific. 3 & 6 have 2 forms: (1) honorific, (2) non-honorific.; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1716: Language: Magahi; Location: India (S Bihar); Population: 11 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: East-Central; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1717: Language: Oriya; Location: E India (Orissa); Population: 20 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern Grammar: Karpushkin, B. M. 1964. Jazyk orija. Moscow: Nauka.; Other Sources: Pattanayak, Debi Prasanna. 1966. A Controlled Historical Reconstruction of Oniya, Assamese, Bengali and Hindi. The Hague: Mouton. Majumdar, Paresh Chandra. 1970. A Historical Phonology of Oriya. Calcutta: Sanskrit College.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ v s ɦ m n ṇ ŋ l ḷ r ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: v s ɦ Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ o ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō ɔ̄ Nasal Vowels: ı̃̃ ẽ ã ũ (õ) ɔ̃ Diphthongs: ǝi ou; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1718: Language: Oriya Dialect: Halbi; Location: E India (Madhya Pradesh); Population: 20 million (300,000); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern; Other Sources: Woods, Fran. 1973. "Sentence Patterns in Halbi," in PCSD I, 35-123.; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s h m n l r ṛ Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Nasal Vowels: ṽ all; Noun; Number: s p; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1719: Language: Oriya Dialect: Kupia; Location: E India (Andhra Pradesh); Population: 20 million (6,000); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern; Other Sources: Christmas, R. B. and J. E. Christmas. 1973a. "Sentence Patterns in Kupia," in PCSD I, 125-95. Christmas, R. B. and J. E. Christmas. 1973b. "Clause Patterns in Kupia," in PCSD II, 257-343.; Consonant system: p t̪ t k b d̪ d ɡ ts dz s m n̪ ŋ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: s Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1720: Language: Oriya Dialect: Kotia; Location: India (Andra Pradesh); Population: 20 million (12,000); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern; Other Sources: Gustafsson, Uwe. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Kotia Oriya," in PCSD II, 191-256.; Consonant system: p t ṭ k b d ḍ ɡ ts dz s (h) m n ṇ l r ṛ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: s (h) Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1721: Language: Bengali Dialect: Calcutta; Location: NE India (West Bengal); Population: 140 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern Dictionary: Mitra, Subal C. 1967. Century Dictionary (Bengali to English). Calcutta: K. C. Mazumder. Dabbs, Jack A. 1965. A Short Bengali-English, English-Bengali Dictionary. College Station: Texas A & M Univ.; TextBooks: Hudson, D. F. 1965. Teach Yourself Bengali. London: English Universities Press. Dimock, Edward, Somdev Bhattacharji and Suhas Chatterjee. 1976. Introduction to Bengali, part I. New Delhi: Manohar.; Other Sources: Ferguson, Charles A. and Munier Chowdhury. 1960. "The Phonemes of Bengali," Lg 36, 22-59.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ (s̪) š h m n̪ ŋ l̪ ɾ ɾ̣ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: (s̪) š h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but h ŋ ɾ ɾ̣ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Nasal Vowels: ṽ all; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6 politeness: 2 & 5 have 3 forms: (1) honorific, (2) neutral, (3) inferior. 3 & 6 have 2 forms: (1) honorific, (2) plain.; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1722: Language: Bengali Dialect: Dacca; Location: Bangladesh; Population: 140 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern; Other Sources: Sen, Nilmadhav. 1972. "Some Dialects of Bangla Desh," IL 33, 143-52.; Consonant system: p t th ṭ ṭh k kh ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ḍ ɗ̣ ɡ ɠ f s̪ s š (x) h z zʔ m n ŋ l r Stops: p b ɓ t th d ɗ ṭ ṭh ḍ ɗ̣ k kh ɡ ɠ ʔ Fricatives: f s̪ s z zʔ š (x) h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɔ; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1723: Language: Assamese; Location: NE India (Assam); Population: 140 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern; Other Sources: Pattanayak, Debi Prasanna. 1966. A Controlled Historical Reconstruction of Oriya, Assamese, Bengali and Hindi. The Hague: Mouton. WALS; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh b b̤ d d̤ ɡ ɡ̤ s x h z m n ŋ l r Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Fricatives: s z x h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t d k m n ŋ l s z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɒ Nasal Vowels: ṽ all but ɔ; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1724: Language: Ashkun; Location: NE Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Nuristani; Other Sources: Strand, Richard F. 1973. "Notes on the Nuristani and Dardic Languages," JAOS 93, 297-305.; Consonant system: p t ṭ k b d ḍ ɡ ts ṭs č dz ɡ̌ s ṣ š v z ẓ ž m n ṇ ŋ l r ṛ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz ṭs č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s z ṣ ẓ š ž Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃

~~Number:~~ 1725: Language: Kalasha-ala; Location: NE Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Nuristani; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1726: Language: Kati; Location: NE Afghanistan (Kunarha); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Nuristani; TextBooks: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1951. "Some Kati Myths and Hymns," Acta Orintalia 21, 161-89.; Other Sources: Strand, Richard F. 1973. "Notes on the Nuristani and Dardic Languages," JAOS 93, 297-305.; Consonant system: p t ṭ k (q) (ʔ) b d ḍ ɡ (G) ts ṭs č dz ḍz ɡ̌ m n ṇ ŋ l r ɾ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ (q) (G) (ʔ) Affricates: ts dz ṭs ḍz č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ɾ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃ Stress: phonemic Articles: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1727: Language: Tregami; Location: NE Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Nuristani; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1728: Language: Wasi-weri Alternate Name: Prasuni; Location: NE Afghanistan; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Nuristani; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1729: Language: Scythian; Location: S Russia; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: West Scythian; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1730: Language: Ossetic Dialect: Eastern; Location: Georgia; Population: 593,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: West Scythian Dictionary: Abaev, V. I. 1950. Russko-osetinskij slovar'. Moscow. Osetinsko-russkij slovar'. 1970. Ordzhonikidze: Ir. Grammar: Abaev, V. I. 1964. A Grammatical Sketch of Ossetic. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Isaev, M. I. 1966. "Osetinskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 237-56.; Other Sources: Benveniste, E. 1959. Études sur la langue ossète. Paris. AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qh b d̪ ɡ t̪s t̪sʔ č čʔ d̪z ɡ̌ f s χ v z ʁ m n̪ l r Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qh Affricates: t̪s t̪sʔ d̪z č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z χ ʁ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial if syllable contains a strong vowel (i e a o u); otherwise second; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: (def); Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST

~~Number:~~ 1731: Language: Ossetic Dialect: Western; Location: Georgia; Population: 400,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: West Scythian Grammar: Isaev, M. I. 1966. Digorskij dialekt osetinskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.; Other Sources: Henderson, Eugénie J. A. 1949. "A Phonetic Study of Western Ossetic (Digoron), " BSOAS 13, 36-79.; Consonant system: p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ q b d̪ ɡ t̪s t̪sʔ d̪z f s̪ χ v z̪ ʁ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ q Affricates: t̪s t̪sʔ d̪z Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ χ ʁ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I æ Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ō; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1732: Language: Avestan; Location: Iran; Population: 500 B.C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian Grammar: Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1892. An Avesta Grammar. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer.; Consonant system: p t̪ t̪h ṭ k kh b d̪ d̪̤ ɡ ɡ̤ č ɡ̌ f s ṣ̌ š h h̃ v z ž m n n ̣ ñ ŋ r Stops: p b t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z ṣ̌ š ž h h̃ Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ao ǝu āi āu ōi aē; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5d 5 *3 *6d *6; Syntax: SOV AN/NA GN; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1733: Language: Avestan Dialect: Sasanid; Location: Iran; Population: 400 A.D.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian Grammar: Sokolov, S.N. 1967. The Avestan Language. Moscow: Nauka.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s ṣ̌ š x h v (ð) z ž (ɣ) m n (ñ) ŋ r ɹ̥ Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ (ð) s z ṣ̌ š ž x (ɣ) h Nasals: m n (ñ) ŋ Vibrants: r ɹ̥ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ā ū ɒ̄ Diphthongs: aē ao ōi ǝ̄u āi āu; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3 *6d *6; Syntax: SOV NA NG/GN DN NUM-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1734: Language: Khwarezmian; Location: S Russia; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: Khwarezmian; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1735: Language: Sogdian; Location: SW Russia; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: Sogdian; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1736: Language: Yaghnobi; Location: Tajikistan; Population: 2,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: Sogdian Grammar: Bogoljubov, M. N. 1966. "Jagnobskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 342-61.; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ č ɡ̌ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ū ō Diphthongs: aj; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: penult or final in noun; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1737: Language: Bactrian; Location: N Afghanistan; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: Bactrian; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1738: Language: Saka; Location: China (Sinkiang); Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1739: Language: Pashto; Location: Afghanistan; Population: 13 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian Grammar: Penzl, Herbert. 1955. Grammar of Pashto. Washington, D.C.: American Council of Learned Societies. Shafeev, D. A. 1964. A Short Grammatical Outline of Pashto. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; TextBooks: Chavarria-Aguilar, O. L. 1962. Pashto Basic Course. Ann Arbor: Dept of Near Eastern Studies, Univ. of Michigan. Enevoldsen, Jens. 1968. An Introduction to Pashto. Copenhagen: Dansk Pathan Mission.; Other Sources: Morgenstierne, G. and A. Lloyd-James. 1928. "Notes on the Pronunciation of Pashto (Dialect of the Hazara District)," BSOAS 5, 53-62.; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k q b d̪ ḍ ɡ (ts) č (dz) ɡ̌ f s ṣ š x h z ẓ ž ɣ m n̪ ṇ l ɾ ɾ̣ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: (ts) (dz) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z ṣ ẓ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: (ī) ē (ū) ō ɑ̄ Diphthongs: aj ǝj au ou āj āu oj Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1740: Language: Pashto Dialect: Eastern; Location: Afghanistan; Population: 13 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p t ṭ k b d ḍ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x h z ž ɣ m n ṇ l r ṛ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: cʷ x ɣ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o ɒ

~~Number:~~ 1741: Language: Wakhi; Location: Tajikistan; Population: 15,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir Grammar: DG: Paxalina, T. N. 1975. Vaxanskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka. DG: IIFL, vol 2. Paxalina, T. N. 1966. "Vaxanskij jzayk," in JNS 1, 398-418. Lorimer, L. R. 1958. The Wakhi Language. London.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p t ṭ k q b d ḍ ɡ ts č̣ č dz ɡ̣̌ ɡ̌ f θ s ṣ̌ š x χ v ð z ẓ̌ ž ɣ ʁ m n l (ḷ) r (ṛ) Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: ts dz č̣ ɡ̣̌ č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z ṣ̌ ẓ̌ š ž x ɣ χ ʁ Nasals: m n Laterals: l (ḷ) Vibrants: r (ṛ) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1742: Language: Munji; Location: NE Afghanistan; Population: 2,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 2. DG: Grjunberg, A. L. 1972. Jazyk vostochnogo gindukusha: mundzhanskij jazyk. Leningrad: Nauka.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p t̪ c k (q) b d̪ ɟ ɡ t̪s č̣ č d̪z ɡ̣̌ ɡ̌ f s̪ ṣ̌ ç š x h v z̪ ẓ̌ ž ɣ m n̪ l̪ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ (q) Affricates: t̪s d̪z č̣ ɡ̣̌ č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ ṣ̌ ẓ̌ ç š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j w Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄ Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN/(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N Ergative: erg; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1743: Language: Yidgha; Location: NE Afghanistan; Population: 2,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p t ṭ k q b d ḍ ɡ ts č̣ č ɡ̌ f s ṣ̌ š x v z ẓ̌ ž ɣ m n ṇ l r ṛ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: ts č̣ č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z ṣ̌ ẓ̌š ž x ɣ Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: cʷ x Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ū Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN/(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N Ergative: erg; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1744: Language: Sanglechi; Location: Afghaniston; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1745: Language: Ishkashmi; Location: NE Afghanistan; Population: 2,500; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 2. Paxalina, T. N. 1959. Ishkashimaskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka. Paxalina, T. N. 1966. "Ishkashimaskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 419-35.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k q b d̪ ḍ ɡ t̪s č̣ č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ ṣ̌ š χ v z̪ ẓ̌ ž ʁ m n̪ l̪ (ḷ) r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: t̪s d̪z č̣ č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ ṣ̌ ẓ̌ š ž χ ʁ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ (ḷ) Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ou oi ai; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1746: Language: Shughni; Location: Tajikistan; Population: 70,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir Dictionary: Zarubin, I. I. 1960. Shuganskie teksty: slovar'. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Grammar: Sokolova, V. S. 1966. "Shugnano-rushanskaja jazykovaja gruppa," in JNS 1, 362-97.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f θ s š x χ v ð z ž ɣ ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ʋ̄ ō; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1747: Language: Shughni Dialect: Sarikoli; Location: SW China (Sinkiang); Population: 70,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir Dictionary: Paxalina, T. N. 1971. Sarykol'sko-russkij slovar'. Moscow: Nauka.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x χ v z ž ɣ ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ā ū Stress: final

~~Number:~~ 1748: Language: Shughni Dialect: Bartang; Location: Tajikistan; Population: 70,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir Grammar: Karamxudoev, N. 1973. Bartangskij jazyk. Dushanbe: Donish.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f θ s š x χ v ð z ž ɣ ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ↔ō ā ū ō Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: SOV DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1749: Language: Yazgulami; Location: Tajikistan; Population: 70,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir Dictionary: Edel'man, D. I. 1971. Jazguliamsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow: Nauka. Grammar: Edel'man, D. I. 1966a. Jazguliamsko jazyk. Moscow: Nauka. Edel'man, D. I. 1966b. "Jazguliamsko-jazyk," in JNS 1, 436-54.; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p t c k q b d ɟ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f θ s š x χ (h) v ð z ž ɣ ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ q Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ (h) Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cʷ k ɡ q x χ ʁ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: (ā); Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4di 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1750: Language: Parachi; Location: Afghanistan; Population: 5,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southeast Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 1.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh q b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ɡ ɡ̤ č čh ɡ̌ f s̪ š x h z̪ ž ɣ m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ l̪ l̪̤ r r̤ ṛ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ q Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ Laterals: l̪ l̪̤ Vibrants: r r̤ ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: e (ɛ) Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: o ɒ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ Diphthongs: aI aʋ āʋ āo āI āe Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN/NA NG/GN DN NUM-N N-POSS D+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1751: Language: Ormuri; Location: Afghanistan; Population: 4,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southeast Grammar: DG: IIFL, vol 1.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k q b d̪ ḍ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ ṣ̌ š x h z̪ ž ɣ ʕ m n̪ ṇ l̪ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ ṣ̌ š ž x ɣ ʕ h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ m n l Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u ɒ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN/(NA) GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1752: Language: Median; Location: NW Iran; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1753: Language: Parthian; Location: Iran (Khorasan); Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1754: Language: Yazdi Alternate Name: Gabri (pejorative); Location: Iran; Population: 8,000 (1940); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran Grammar: DG: Ivanow, W. 1940. The Gabri Dialect. Rome: G. Bardi.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f (θ) s š x h v (ð) z ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v (θ) (ð) s z š x ʁ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u (o) Long Vowels: v̄ ?; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP Comments: All bilingual in Farsi.

~~Number:~~ 1755: Language: Nayini; Location: C Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1756: Language: Natanzi; Location: C Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1757: Language: Soi; Location: C Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1758: Language: Khunsari; Location: C Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1759: Language: Gazi; Location: C Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1760: Language: Sivandi; Location: C Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1761: Language: Vafsi; Location: C Iran (Central); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1762: Language: Semnani; Location: Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Semnani; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1763: Language: Sangisari; Location: Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Semnani; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1764: Language: Gilaki; Location: Iran; Population: 3.2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Caspian; Other Sources: CTIL 6, 111. OPYT; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ɣ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: ī ū

~~Number:~~ 1765: Language: Mazanderani; Location: N Iran; Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Caspian; Other Sources: CTIL 6, 111. OPYT; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ɣ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o

~~Number:~~ 1766: Language: Talysh; Location: Azerbaijan; Population: 1 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Talysh Grammar: Miller, B. V. 1953. Talyshskij jazyk. Moscow. Pirejko, L. A. 1966. "Talyshskij jazyk," in JNS 1 302-22.; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p t c k b d ɟ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š χ h v z ž ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N Ergative: erg; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1767: Language: Harzani; Location: Iran (W Azerbaijan); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Talysh; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1768: Language: Zaza Alternate Name: Kirmanjki; Location: Turkey (Tunceli); Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Zaza-Gorani; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1769: Language: Gorani; Location: Iran (W Kordestan); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Zaza-Gorani; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1770: Language: Baluchi Dialect: Eastern; Location: S Pakistan; Population: 2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Baluchi; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh b d ḍ ɡ č čh ɡ̌ f θ s š x h ð z ž ɣ m n l r Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f θ ð s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I æ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄

~~Number:~~ 1771: Language: Baluchi Dialect: Western; Location: S Pakistan; Population: 2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Baluchi Dictionary: Gilbertson, G. W. 1925. English-Baluchi Colloquial Dictionary, 2 vols. Hertford. Grammar: Rastorgueva, V. S. 1960. Beludzhskij jazyk. Moscow. Rastorgueva, V. S. 1966. "Beludzhskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 323-41.; TextBooks: Barker, Muhammad Abd-al-Rahman and Aqil Khan Mengal. 1969. A Course in Baluchi. Montreal: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 OPYT; Consonant system: p t ṭ k b d ḍ ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) s š x h v z ž ɣ m n l ɾ ɾ̣ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō (ı̃̄) ẽ̄ ã̄ (ũ̄) ȭ Diphthongs: ǝj ǝw; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N(1,2,4,5)/N-POSS(3,6) D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1772: Language: Bashkardi; Location: Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Baluchi; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1773: Language: Kirmanji; Location: Syria; Population: 5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish Grammar: Bedir Khan, Emir Djeladet and Roger Lescot. 1970. Grammaire kurde. Paris: Maisonneuve.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3(mf) (6) 3m, 3f, 6 in oblique case only; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1774: Language: Kirmanji Alternate Name: Kurdish; Location: Armenia; Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish Dictionary: Kurdoev, K. K. 1960. Kurdsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Farizov, I. O. 1957. Russko-kurdskij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Kurdov, K. K. 1957. Grammatika kurdskogo jazyka. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Bakaev, C. X. 1962. Govor kuidov Turkmenii. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Bakaev, C. X. 1965. Jazyk azerbajdzhanskix kurdov. Moscow: Nauka. Bakaev, C. X. 1966. " Kurdskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 257-80.; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh q b d ɡ č čh ɡ̌ m n l ɾ r Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ q Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ø æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o ɒ Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1mf 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1775: Language: Kurdi; Location: Iraq; Population: 5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish Dictionary: McCarus, Ernest N. 1967. A Kurdish-English Dictionary. Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Press.; TextBooks: Abdulla, Jamal Jalal and Ernest N. McCarus. 1967. Kurdish Basic Course. Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Press.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s̪ (sɯ) (v) z̪ m n̪ ŋ l̪ lɯ ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f (v) s̪ z̪ (sɯ Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ lɯ Vibrants: ɾ r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS D+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1776: Language: Kurdi Dialect: Mukri; Location: NW Iran; Population: 5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish Grammar: Ejjubi, K. R. and I. A. Smirnova. 1968. Kurdskij dialect mukri. Leningrad: Nauka.; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ č ɡ̌ m n l lɯ r rɯ Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: r rɯ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄ Diphthongs: øe ua yi Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1777: Language: Kermanshahi; Location: NW Iran (Kermanshahan); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1778: Language: Old Persian; Location: Iran; Population: c. 500 B.C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian Grammar: Kent, Roland G. 1953. Old Persian. New Haven: American Oriental Society.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s̪ ṣ š x h z̪ m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f θ s̪ z̪ ṣ š x h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai au āi āu; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C) rˈ; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: (def); Pronouns: 1 4 2 3 6; Syntax: SOV NA GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS); Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1779: Language: Farsi Alternate Name: Persian Dialect: Tehran; Location: Iran; Population: 20 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian Grammar: Mehan, M. n.d. Persian Grammar. Stockholm: Skriptor. Rubinchik, Y. A. 1971. The Modern Persian Language. Moscow: Nauka.; TextBooks: Obolensky, Serge, Kambiz Yazdan Panah and Fereidoun Khaje Nouri. 1963. Persian Basic Course. Washington D.C.: CAL. Lambton, Ann K. S. 1967. Persian Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. Mace, John. 1969. Teach Yourself Modern Persian. London: English Universities Press.; Other Sources: Scott, Charles T. 1964. "Syllable Structure in Tehran Persian," AL 6:1, 27-30. OPYT; Consonant system: ph t̪h kh b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š x (h) v z ž ɣ m n̪ l ɾ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ (h) Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: e æ Back Vowels: o Long Vowels: ī ū ɑ̄ Diphthongs: ei ai ui ou; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6 politeness: honorific pronouns (< nouns) for 1 2 3; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/(POST)

~~Number:~~ 1780: Language: Farsi Alternate Name: Persian Dialect: Dari; Location: N Afghanistan; Population: 20 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian Grammar: Farhadi, A. G. 1955. Le persan parlé en Afghanistan. Paris: Klincksieck.; Other Sources: Henderson, Michael M. T. 1975. "Diglossia in Kabul Persian Phonology," JAOS 95, 651-4. Henderson, Michael M. T. 1978. "Modern Persian Verb Morphology,," JAOS 98, 375-88.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š x h z ɣ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄ Diphthongs: aj aw; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1781: Language: Farsi Alternate Name: Persian Dialect: Hazaras; Location: N Afghanistan; Population: 20 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian Grammar: Efimov, V. A. 1965. Jazyk afganskix xazara. Moscow: Nauka.; Consonant system: p t ṭ k q b d ḍ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š (h) z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š ž (h) Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ɛ̄ ʋ̄ ō Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1782: Language: Farsi Alternate Name: Persian Dialect: Shahrudi; Location: Iran; Population: 20 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian; Other Sources: Yarshater, E. 1959. "The Dialect of Shahrud (Khalkhal), " BSOAS 22, 52-68.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s̪ š x h v z̪ ɣ m n l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u (o) ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ei ou āi āu; Noun; Number: s p; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV GN POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1783: Language: Tajiki Alternate Name: Tajik; Location: Tajikistan; Population: 20 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian Dictionary: Arzumanov, D. and X. K. Karimov. 1957. Russko-tadzhikskij slovar'. Moscow. Raxim, M. V. and L. V. Uspenskaja. 1954. Tadzhiksko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Kerimova, A. A. 1959. Govor tadzhikov buxary. Moscow. Rastorgueva, V. S. 1963. A Short Sketch of Tajik Grammar. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Kerimova, A. A. 1966. "Tadzhikskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 212-36.; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: ph th kh qh b d ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ f s š χ h v z (ž) ʁ m n l r Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ qh Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š (ž) χ ʁ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 politeness: 5 is also used as a polite form for 2; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/(POST)

~~Number:~~ 1784: Language: Tati; Location: SW Russia (S Dagestan ASSR); Population: 35,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Tati Grammar: Grjunberg, A. L. 1966. "Tatskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 281-301.; Other Sources: OPYT; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ G č ɡ̌ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ G Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y æ Back Vowels: u ɑ Diphthongs: ei ɔu øy; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: final in noun; variable in verb; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1785: Language: Fars; Location: Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Fars; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1786: Language: Lari; Location: SW Iran; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Fars; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1787: Language: Luri; Location: SW Iran; Population: 4.3 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Luri; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1788: Language: Kumzari; Location: N Oman; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Luri; Consonant system:

Обзоры типологий албанских диалектов

~~Number:~~ 1789: Language: Albanian Dialect: Tosk; Location: S Albania; Population: 3 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Albanian Dictionary: Drizari, Nelo. 1957. Albanian-English and English-Albanian Dictionary. New York: Frederic Ungar. Grammar: Newmark, Leonard. 1957. Structural Grammar of Albanian. IJAL 23:4, Part II.; TextBooks: Drizari, Nelo. 1959. Spoken and Written Albanian. New York: Frederick Ungar. Camaj, Martin. 1969. Lehrbuch der albanischen Sprache. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t c k b d ɟ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f θ s š h v ð z ž m n ñ l lɯ ɾ Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u ɔ Diphthongs: ai ei oi ui yi ie ye ua (ue) Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f (n) Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6mf; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS/(POSS-N); Prep/Post: PREP Comments: The national language is based on the Tosk dialect.

~~Number:~~ 1790: Language: Albanian Dialect: Gheg; Location: N Albania; Population: 3 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Albanian; Other Sources: Lowman, G. S. 1932. "The Phonetics of Albanian," Lg 8, 271-93. Byron, Janet. 1976. Selecton among Alternates in Language Standardization. The Hague: Mouton, AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f θ s š x h v ð z ž ɣ m n ñ l lɯ ɾ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ỹ ɛ̃ ã ũ Diphthongs: ie yi ei ai ui ue ɔi Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n; Syntax: SVO

Обзоры типологий греческих языков

~~Number:~~ 1791: Language: Classical Greek Alternate Name: Linear B Dialect: Mycenaean; Location: Greece (Knossos); Population: c. 1,000 B.C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek; Other Sources: Chadwick, John. 1970. The Decipherent of Linear B. Cambridge, Eng: Cambridge Univ Press.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh b d ɡ s z m n l r Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ Fricatives: s z Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cʷ k kh ɡ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ai au eu oi ou ei ui; Tones: hi low fall; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3mfn 6dmfn 6mfn; Syntax: SOV/SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1792: Language: Classical Greek Dialect: Cyprian; Location: Cyprus; Population: c. 500 B.C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek; Other Sources: Chadwick, John. 1970. The Decipherent of Linear B. Cambridge, Eng: Cambridge Univ Press.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh b ɡ s x z m n l r Stops: p ph b t th k kh ɡ Fricatives: s z x Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Tones: hi low fall; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3mfn 6dmfn 6mfn; Syntax: SOV/SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1793: Language: Classical Greek; Location: Greece; Population: c. 500 B.C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek Grammar: Goodwin, William Watson. 1930. Greek Grammar. Boston: Ginn and Company. McKay, K. L. 1974. Greek Grammar for Students. Canberra: Dept of Classics, Australian National University.; TextBooks: Ruck, Carl A. P. 1972. Ancient Greek: A New Approach. Cambridge: MIT Press.; Other Sources: Allen, W. Sidney. 1968. Vox Graeca. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh b d̪ ɡ s h m n̪ ŋ l r Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Front Vowels: i y ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ɛ̄ ā ū ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ai au eu oi; Tones: hi low fall; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3mfn 6dmfn 6mfn; Syntax: SOV/SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1794: Language: Greek; Location: Greece; Population: 9 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek Grammar: Mirambel, André. 1959. La langue grecque moderne. Paris: Klincksieck. Householder, Fred W., Kostas Kazazis and Andreas Koutsoudas. 1964. Reference Grammar of Literary Dhimotiki. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Thomson, George. 1967. A Manual of Modern Greek. London: Collets.; TextBooks: Kahane, Henry, Renée Kahane and Ralph L. Ward. 1945. Spoken Greek. New York: Henry Holt and Company.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ ts dz f θ s x v ð z ɣ m n̪ l ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: f v θ ð s z x ɣ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn politeness: 2 intim & 2 pol; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1795: Language: Greek Dialect: Cypriot; Location: Cyprus; Population: 9 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek Grammar: Newton, Brian. 1972. Cypriot Greek. The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k č f θ š x v ð z ž ɣ m n̪ l r Stops: p t̪ c k Affricates: č Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ð z ž ɣ Glides: j Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mfn; Syntax: DN NUM-N

~~Number:~~ 1796: Language: Tsakonian; Location: S Greece (E Peloponnesos); Population: 30O; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek; Consonant system: Comments: All bilingual in Greek

Обзоры типологий итало-романских языков

~~Number:~~ 1797: Language: Oscan; Location: Italy; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Osco-Umbrian Grammar: Budk, Carl Darling. 1904. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian. Boston: Ginn.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ f s h v z m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f v s z h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: ai ei oi au ou; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1798: Language: Umbrian; Location: Italy; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Osco-Umbrian Grammar: Buck, Carl Darling. 1904. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian. Boston: Ginn.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ f s ç h v z m n l ɾ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f v s z ç h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1799: Language: Sabellian; Location: Italy; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Osco-Umbrian; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1800: Language: Faliscan; Location: Italy; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic Grammar: Giacomelli, Gabriella. 1963. La Lingua falisca. Florence: Leo S. Olschki.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ f s h z m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f s z h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ai oi au ou

~~Number:~~ 1801: Language: Proto-Romance; Location: Italy; Population: c. 500 A.D.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance; Other Sources: Hall, Robert A., Jr. 1976. Proto-Romance Phonology. New York: Elsevier.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ f s̪ m n̪ l̪ ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Fricatives: f s̪ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w Front Vowels: i I e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ʋ o ɔ Diphthongs: ai ei au; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1802: Language: Latin Dialect: Classical; Location: C Italy; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic Dictionary: Simpson, D. P. 1960. Cassell's New Latin Dictionary. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Grammar: Serbat, Guy. 1975. Les structures du latin. Paris: A. & J. Picard.; TextBooks: Moreland, Floyd L. and Rita M. Fleischer. 1974. Latin: An Intensive Course. Berkeley: Univ of California Press.; Other Sources: Palmer, L. R. 1954. The Latin Language. London: Faber & Faber. Allen, W. Sidney. 1965. Vox Latina. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.; Consonant system: p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ f s h m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ Fricatives: f s h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ae au ui (oe) (eu) Stress: non-phonemic (penult/antepenult); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 3 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP/(POST)

~~Number:~~ 1803: Language: Sardinian; Location: Italy (Sardinia); Population: 1 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance Grammar: Wagner, M. L. 1951. La lingua sarda. Berne: Francke.; Other Sources: Mazzola, Michael Lee. 1976. Proto-Romance and Sicilian. Lisse: Peter de Ridder. WALS; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ ts dz f s v m n̪ ñ l ʎ ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: f v s Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: v̄ Glides: j Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɔ Stress: phonemic; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1804: Language: Rumanian Alternate Name: Daco-Rumanian; Location: Rumania; Population: 22 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern Dictionary: Levitchi, Leon. 1960. Dictionar romin-englez. Bucharest: Editura Stiintifica. Levitchi, Leon, ed. 1974. Dictionar englez-roman. Bucharest: Editura Academiei. Grammar: Guillermou, Alain. 1953. Manuel de langue roumaine. Paris: Klincksieck. Agard, Frederick B. 1958. Structural Sketch of Rumanian. Supplement to Lg 34:3. Repina, T. A. 1968. Rumynskij jazyk. Moscow: Moscow Univ Press.; TextBooks: Augerot, James E. and Florin D. Popescu. 1971. Modern Romanian. Seattle: Univ of Washington Press. Cazacu, B., et al. 1978. Cours de langue roumaine. Bucharest: Editura Didactica.; Other Sources: Ruhlen, Merritt. 1973. Rumanian Phonology. Stanford: Stanford Univ Diss. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ ts č ɡ̌ f s š h v z ž m n̪ l ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: ts č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: i ɨ u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ai au ij ea oa uw ou eau ieu; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f [the so called neuter nouns in Rumanian behave like masc nouns in the singular, and fem nouns in the plural] Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: 2 has 3 forms: (1) formal, (2) familiar, (3)intimate 3mf & 6mf have polite and plain forms.; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG ND/(DN) NUM-N N-POSS D+Num+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1805: Language: Istro-Rumanian; Location: Croatia (Istrian Peninsula); Population: 1,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern Dictionary: Maiorescu, Ioan. 1900. Itinerar in Istria si vocabularul istriano-roman. Bucharest: Socecu. Grammar: Kovačec, August. 1971. Descrierea istroromanei actuale. Bucharest: Editura Academiei. Puscariu, Sextil. 1926. Studii istroromane, vol 2. Bucharest: Academia Romana.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k b d̪ ts č (ɡ̌) f s š h v z ž ɣ m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c k Affricates: ts č (ɡ̌) Fricatives: f v s z š ž ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ (a) Back Vowels: u o ɒ; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f (+ pseudo-neuter, cf. Rumanian) Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1806: Language: Megleno-Rumanian; Location: N Greece; Population: 12,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern Dictionary: Capidan, T. 1935. Meglenoromanii, vol 3: Dictionarul Meglenoroman. Bucharest: Academia Romana. Grammar: Capidan, T. 1925. Meglenoromanii, vol 1: Istoria si graiul lor. Bucharest: Academia Romana.; Consonant system: p t c k b d ɟ ɡ ts č̌ dz ɡ̌ f s š v z ž m n ñ l lɯ ʎ r Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l lɯ ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e (ɛ) Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ea oa au eu iu ou ia ie io iu; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f (+ pseudo-neuter, cf. Rumanian) Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA/AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1807: Language: Arumanian; Location: N Greece; Population: 250,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern Dictionary: Papahagi, Tache. 1974. Dictionarul dialectului aroman. Bucharest: Editura Academiei. Grammar: Capidan, T. 1932. Aromanii: Dialectul aroman. Bucharest: Academia Romana.; Other Sources: Caragiu-Marioteanu, Matilda.1968. Fono-morfologie aromana. Bucharest: Editura Academiei.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k b d̪ ɟ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f (θ) s š h v (ð) z ž (ɣ) m n̪ ñ l ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v (θ) (ð) s z š ž (ɣ) h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ea ia ie io iu oa wa; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f (+ pseudo-neuter, cf. Rumanian) Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: 3mf & 6mf have polite and plain forms.; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG ND/(DN) NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1808: Language: Dalmatian; Location: Yugoslavia; Population: extinct (c.1898); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Italo-Romance; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1809: Language: Italian; Location: Italy; Population: 60 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Italo-Romance Grammar: Hall, Robert A., Jr. 1971. La struttura dell'italiano. Rome: Armando Armando.; TextBooks: Speight, Kathleen. 1962. Italian. London: English Universities Press. Traversa, Vincenzo. 1967. Parola e pensiero. New York: Harper & Row.; Other Sources: Agard, Frederick B. and Robert J. Di Pietro 1965. The Sounds of English and Italian. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press. Migliorini, Bruno B. and T. Gwynfor Griffith. 1966. The Italian Language. New York: Barnes & Noble. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š v m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ š Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but š ñ ǝ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Diphthongs: ja jo je jɛ ju wɔ wa we wi ɛj aj ɔj uj ɛw aw; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: phonemic, but mostly penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: 2 has 3 forms: (1) intimate, (2) plain, (3) polite 5 has 2 forms:(1) initimate-plain, (2) polite; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS) D+Num+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1810: Language: Italian Dialect: Sicilian; Location: Italy (Sicily); Population: 60 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Italo-Romance; Other Sources: Fodale, Peter. 1964. The Sicilian Dialects as a Diasystem: A Study in Structural Dialectology. Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Diss. Mazzola, Michael Lee. 1976. Proto-Romance and Sicilian. Lisse: Peter de Ridder.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ḍ̄ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š v m n̪ ñ ŋ l ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ḍ̄ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s š Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but v j w (ḍ is always lonɡ) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C) mˈ nˈ Stress: phonemic; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1811: Language: Friulian; Location: Rumania; Population: 400,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance Grammar: Iliescu, Maria. 1972. Le frioulan à partir des dialectes parlés en Roumanie. The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p t k b d g č ɡ̌ f s v z m n ñ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1812: Language: Friulian; Location: Italy; Population: 600,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1813: Language: Ladin; Location: N Italy (S Tyrol); Population: 12,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1814: Language: Romansch Dialect: Engadin; Location: S Switzerland; Population: 50,000 (9,000); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance Grammar: Borodina, M. A. 1969. Sovremennyj literaturnyj retoromanskij jazyk shvejtsarii. Leningrad: Nauka.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɟ ɡ t̪s č ć d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š ç h v z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ɟ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ ć Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ç h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ɛ œ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ai au ea ɛi īǝ ou yǝ yi ui uǝ iǝ iē iø uɛ̄ uē uɛ uī Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA/AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1815: Language: Romansch Dialect: Surselva; Location: S Switzerland; Population: 50,000 (26,000); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance Grammar: Borodina, M. A. 1969. Sovremennyj literaturnyj retoromanskij jazyk Shvejtsarii. Leningrad: Nauka.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɟ ɡ t̪s č ć d̪z f s̪ š ç h v z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ɟ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ć Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ç h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ ? Diphthongs: ai au iu ɛu ie uǝ ia iu ieu Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA/AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1816: Language: Franco-Provençal; Location: SE France; Population: 332,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance; Other Sources: Martinet, André. 1956. La description phonologique avec application au parler franco-provençal d'Hautiville ( Savoie). Geneva: Droz.; Consonant system: p t c k b d ɟ ɡ f θ s š v ð z ž m n ñ l̪ ʎ ɾ r Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: ɛ̆ ă ɔ̆ Nasal Vowels: ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃; Syllable: (C) (C)V [ɾ] Stress: phonemic (final or penult); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Articles: def indef; Syntax: SVO NA/AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1817: Language: Franco-Provençal Dialect: Gascon; Location: SW France (Gascony); Population: 332,000 (255,000); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance Dictionary: Palay, Simin. 1974. Dictionnaire du béarnais et du gascon modernes. Paris: CNRS. Grammar: Kelly, Reine Cardaillac. 1973. A Descriptive Analysis of Gascon. The Hague: Mouton. Darrigrand, R. and M. Grosclaude. 1971. Abrégé de grammaire béarnaise et gasconne. Bordeaux.; Other Sources: Kelly, Reine Cardaillac. 1971. "The Sound System of a Gascon Dialect," Linguistics 68, 5-12.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č ɡ̌ f s š z ž m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š ž Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: ɾ r Modified Consonants: c̄ t m n l Glides: j (ɥ) w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: au eu ɛu iu ou triph; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: 2 intim/2 pol; Syntax: SVO NA/AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1818: Language: French Dialect: Parisian; Location: France; Population: 66 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance Dictionary: Dubois, Marguerite-Marie. 1960. Larousse Modern French-English, English-French Dictionary. New York: McGraw Hill. Grammar: Chevalier, Jean-Claude, et al. 1964. Grammaire Larousse du français contemporain. Paris: Larousse.; TextBooks: Harris, Julian and André Léveque. 1973. Basic Conversational French. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.; Other Sources: Armstrong, Lilias E. 1964. The Phonetics of French. London: G. Bell and Sons. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ f s š v z ž ʁ m n̪ ñ l Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Fricatives: f v s z š ž Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: ʁ Glides: j ɥ w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ œ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ (ɑ) Nasal Vowels: (œ̃) æ̃ õ ɑ̃; Syllable: (C)(C)(G)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 1 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf + indef politeness: 2 intim & 2 pol (2pol = 5); Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1819: Language: French Dialect: Canadian; Location: Canada; Population: 66 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance Grammar: Morgan, Raleigh, Jr. 1975. The Regional French of County Beauce, Quebec. The Hague: Mouton.; Other Sources: Ellis, Patricia M. 1965. "Les phonèmes du français maillardvillois," Canadian Journal of Linguistics 11, 7-30.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ f s š v z ž m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f v s z š ž Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j ɥ w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ œ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɑ Nasal Vowels: ẽ ø̃ ã ɔ̃; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 1 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf + indef politeness: 2 intim & 2 pol (2pol = 5); Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1820: Language: Provençal; Location: S France; Population: 355,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance Dictionary: Piat, L. 1970. Dictionnaire français-occitanien. Aix-en-Provence: Ramoun Berenguié. Alibert, Louis. 1965. Dictionnaire occitan-français. Toulouse: Institut d'Études Occitanes. Grammar: Journot, Jean. 1967. Elements de gramatica occitana. Toulouse: Institut d'Études Occitanes.; Other Sources: Coustenoble, Hélène N. 1945. La phonétique du provençal moderne. Hertford: Stephen Austin and Sons. Bec, Pierre. 1973. Manuel pratique d'occitan moderne. Paris: A. & J. Picard.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s d̪z f s v z ʁ m n̪ ñ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z Fricatives: f v s z Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r R Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ø ɛ œ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ei ɛi eu ɛu ai ɑu ɔi ɔu ou ui øi œi je jɛ ja jɔ jo ju jø jei jɛi jeu jɛu jai jɑu jɔu jou jœi Stress: penult & final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA/AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1821: Language: Catalan Dialect: Eastern; Location: NE Spain; Population: 5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: Wheeler, Max W. 1972. "Distinctive Features and Natural Classes in Phonological Theory," JL 8, 87-102.; Consonant system: p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ f s š v z ž m n ñ l ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ Fricatives: f v s z š ž Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cʷ k ɡ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɑ; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1822: Language: Catalan; Location: NE Spain; Population: 5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance Grammar: GD: Gili, Joan. 1967. Introducory Catalan Grammar. Oxford: The Dolphin Book Co. Badia Margarit, Antonio M. 1962. Gramatica catalana, 2 vols. Madrid: Gredos.; Other Sources: Badia Margarit, Antonio Straka and Georges Straka, eds. 1973. La linguistique catalane. Paris: Klincksieck. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š v z ž m n ñ l ʎ ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ r Modified Consonants: c̄ l ʎ m Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Diphthongs: ai ei oi ui au eu iu ou Stress: penult & final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 [reduced to 2 in most modern dialectos] Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: familiar/politeness distinction for 2 and 5.; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN/(ND) NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS [optional for 6]); Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1823: Language: Spanish Dialect: Castilian; Location: Spain; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance Dictionary: Velázquez de la Cadena, Mariano, Edward Gray and Juan L. Iribas. 1974. Velázquez Spanish and English Dictionary. Chicago: Follett. Grammar: Pottier, Bernard. 1970. Gramática del español. Madrid: Alcala.; TextBooks: Wilson, N. Scarlyn. 1970. Spanish. London: Teach Yourself Books.; Other Sources: Llorach, Emilio Alarcos. 1968. Fonologı́a española. Madrid: Gredos. Dalbor, John B. 1969. Spanish Pronunciation: Theory and Practice. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Macpherson, I. R. n.d. Spanish Phonology: Descriptive and Historical. New York: Barnes & Noble. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č f θ s x m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f θ s x Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ie ia io iu ei ai oi ui ue ua uo eu au ou Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politness: intim/polite distinction for 2 & 5; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1824: Language: Spanish Dialect: Andalusian; Location: S Spain; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č f s h m n ñ l ɾ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f s h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Stress: phonemic; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1825: Language: Spanish Dialect: Judeo-Spanish; Location: Rumania; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: Sala, Marius. 1971. Phonétique et phonologie du judéo-espagnol de Bucharest: The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š x v z̪ ž m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: diphthongs; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1826: Language: Spanish Dialect: Mexican; Location: Mexico; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; TextBooks: Bolinger, Dwight, et al, eds. 1960. Modern Spanish. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.; Other Sources: Stockwell, Robert P. and J. Donald Bowen. 1965. The Sounds of English and Spanish. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č f s x m n̪ ñ l ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f s x Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ej aj oj aw ew uj iw; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C) Stress: phonemic, but mostly penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 3 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: 2 intim/2 pol; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1827: Language: Spanish Dialect: Cuban; Location: Cuba; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: Isbăsescu, Cristina. 1968. El español en Cuba. Bucharest: Sociedad Rumana de Lingüı́stica Románica.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č f s h m n ñ l ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f s h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1828: Language: Spanish Dialect: Costa Rican; Location: Costa Rica; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: Chavarria-Aguilar, O. L. 1951. "The Phonemes of Costa Rican Spanish," Lg 27, 248-53.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č f s h m n̪ ñ ŋ l ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f s h Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C) Stress: phonemic; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1829: Language: Spanish Dialect: Panamanian; Location: Panama; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: Alvarado de Ricord, Elsie. 1971. El español de Panamá. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č f s h m n ñ l ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f s h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1830: Language: Spanish Dialect: Colombian; Location: Colombia; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: Florez, Luis. 1965. El español hablado en Santander. Bogota: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s̪ x m n ñ l ʎ ɾ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ x Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Stress: phonemic; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1831: Language: Spanish Dialect: Ecuadorean; Location: Ecuador; Population: 200 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č f s š x m n ñ l ʎ ɾ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f s š x Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Stress: phonemic; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1832: Language: Galician; Location: NW Spain; Population: 4 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance Dictionary: Franco Grande, X. L. 1968. Diccionario galego-castelan. Colón: Galaxia. Grammar: Carballo Calero, Ricardo. 1970. Gramática elemental del gallego común. Colón: Galaxia.; Other Sources: Veiga Arias, Amable. 1976. Fonologia gallega. Valencia: Bello.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č f θ s š m n ñ ŋ l ʎ ɾ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: f θ s š Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ r Modified Consonants: c̄ m n Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Diphthongs: ia ie io iu ua ue ui uo ai au ei eu oi ou; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1833: Language: Portuguese Dialect: Lisbon; Location: Portugal; Population: 130 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; TextBooks: Willis, R. Clive. 1971. An Essential Course in Modern Portuguese. London: Goerge G. Harrap.; Other Sources: Head, Brian. 1964. A Comparison of the Segmental Phonology of Lisbon and Rio de Janieiro. Austin: Univ of Texas Diss.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ f s š v z̪ ž ʁ m n ñ l ʎ ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Fricatives: f v z̪ s š ž Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ ʁ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: (ɐ) a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ẽ ɐ̃ ũ õ Diphthongs: ɐ̃w ɐ̃j õj; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: 2 has 4 forms: (1) very familiar, (2) fairly familiar, (3) pol masc, (4) pol fem. 5 has 3 forms: (1) fam, (2) pol masc, (3) pol fem.; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1834: Language: Portuguese Dialect: Brazilian; Location: Brazil; Population: 130 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance Dictionary: Michaelis, H. 1958. The New Michaelis Illustrated Dictionary, 2 vols. Sao Paulo: Melhorametos.; TextBooks: Ellison, Fred P. and Francisco Gomes de Matos. 1971. Modern Portuguese. New York : Alfred A. Knopf. Thomas, Earl W. 1974. A Grammar of Spoken Brazilian Portuguese. Nashville: Vanderbilt Univ Press.; Other Sources: Head, Brian Franklin. 1964. A Comparison of the Segmental Phonology of Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro. Austin: Univ. of Texas Diss. Camara, Joaquin Mattoso, Jr. 1972. The Portuguese Language. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ f s š x v z̪ ž m n ñ l ʎ ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Fricatives: f v z̪ s š ž x Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ẽ ɐ̃ ũ õ Diphthongs: au ai eu ei ɛu ɛi iu ou oi ɔi ui ão ãe ẽi õi Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf politeness: 2 & 5 each have 3 forms: (1) intim, (2) pol masc, (3) pol fem.; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1835: Language: Mozarabic; Location: Spain; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance; Consonant system:

Обзоры типологий кельтских языков

~~Number:~~ 1836: Language: Gaulish; Location: S France; Population: extinct (c. 500 A.D.); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Continental; Other Sources: Fowkes, Robert A. 1940. "The Phonology of Gaulish," Lg 16, 285-99. Watkins, Calvert. 1955. "The Phonemics of Gualish: The Dialect of Narbonensis," Lg 31, 9-19.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts s m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts Fricatives: s Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai au oi ou ūi (eu)

~~Number:~~ 1837: Language: Irish Alternate Name: Gaelic; Location: Ireland; Population: 500,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic Dictionary: Dinneen, Patrick S. 1904. An Irish-English Dictionary. London: David Nutt. Grammar: Calder, George. 1923. A Gaelic Grammar. Glasgow: Gairn.; TextBooks: Dillon, Myles and Donncha Ó Cróinı́n. 1961. Irish. London: English Universities Press.; Consonant system: ph t̪h kh b d̪ ɡ f s x h v m n̪ l̪ r Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ Fricatives: f v s x h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj all Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au ou iǝ uǝ Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N POSS-N Num+N+A+D; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1838: Language: Irish Alternate Name: Gaelic Dialect: Waterford; Location: Ireland; Population: 500,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic; Other Sources: Breatnach, Risteard B. 1947. The Irish of Ring, Co. Waterford. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.; Consonant system: ph t̪h ch kh b d̪ ɟ ɡ ɸ s š ç x h β ɣ ɣʷ m n̪ ŋ lj ɾ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ch ɟ kh ɡ Fricatives: ɸ β s š ç x ɣ ɣʷ h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: lj Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: cj p b t d f v h m n ŋ r (l is always palatalized; non-palatalized consonants are velarized.); Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄ Diphthongs: iǝ ia uǝ ai au ǝi ǝu Stress: initial

~~Number:~~ 1839: Language: Irish Alternate Name: Gaelic Dialect: Galway; Location: Ireland; Population: 500,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic; Other Sources: de Bhaldraithe, Tomás. 1966. The Irish of Cois Fhairrge, Co. Galway. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.; Consonant system: ph t̪h th kh b d̪ d ɡ ts tr č dr ɡ̌ ɸ s š x h β ɣ m n n̥ ñ ŋ l̪ l̪̥ ʎ ɾ ɾ̥ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ th d kh ɡ Affricates: ts tr dr č ɡ̌ Fricatives: ɸ β s š x ɣ h Nasals: m n n̥ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ l̪̥ ʎ Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̥ Modified Consonants: cj p b t d k ɡ ɸ β x m n n̥ ŋ l l̥ r r̥ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɑ̄ Nasal Vowels: (ṽ) Diphthongs: iǝ ei uǝ ai au uǝi uǝu Stress: initial

~~Number:~~ 1840: Language: Irish Alternate Name: Gaelic Dialect: Cork; Location: S Ireland; Population: 500,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic; Other Sources: Ó Cuiv, Brian. 1968. The Irish of West Muskerry, Co. Cork. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.; Consonant system: ph t̪h kh b d̪ ɡ č ɸ s š x h β z ž ɣ m n̪ n̪̥ ŋ l̪ l̪̥ ɾ ɾ̥ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: ɸ β s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ n̪̥ ŋ Laterals: l̪ l̪̥ Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̥ Modified Consonants: cj all but s z š ž j ɣ h č Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō ɑ̄ Nasal Vowels: (ṽ) Diphthongs: iǝ ia uǝ ǝi ai au ou Stress: initial

~~Number:~~ 1841: Language: Irish Alternate Name: Gaelic Dialect: Mayo, Erris; Location: Ireland; Population: 500,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic Grammar: Fhailigh, Éamonn Mhac an. 1968. The Irish of Erris, Co. Mayo. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.; Consonant system: ph t̪h th kh b d̪ d ɡ č ɡ̌ ɸ s š ç x h βj ɣ m n̪ n ñ ŋ l̪ l ʎ ɾ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ th d kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: ɸ βj s š ç x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ n ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: cj p b k ɡ ɸ m n ŋ l ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ẽ ã ũ (õ) ı̃̄ ẽ̄ ũ̄ ȭ ɑ̃̄ Stress: initial

~~Number:~~ 1842: Language: Irish Alternate Name: Gaelic Dialect: Mayo, Tourmakeady; Location: Ireland; Population: 500,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic; Other Sources: de Búrca, Seán. 1970. The Irish of Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.; Consonant system: ph t̪h (t) c kh b d̪ (d) ɟ ɡ (č) (ɡ̌) ɸ s ç x h ̤β (z) ɣ m n̪ n ñ ŋ l̪ l ʎ ɾ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ (t) (d) c ɟ kh ɡ Affricates: (č) (ɡ̌) Fricatives: ɸ β s (z) ç x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ n ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: cj all but ɣ h k ɡ c ɟ x ŋ l̪ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄ Nasal Vowels: (ṽ) Diphthongs: iǝ uǝ ǝi ǝu; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial

~~Number:~~ 1843: Language: Irish Alternate Name: Gaelic Dialect: Aran; Location: Ireland; Population: 500,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ f s x h v ɣ m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f v s x ɣ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj cʷ Glides: w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ʌ Long Vowels: ī ē ǝ̄ ū ō ɔ̄ Stress: non-phonemic

~~Number:~~ 1844: Language: Scottish Gaelic; Location: Scotland; Population: 100,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic Grammar: Holmer, Nils M. 1938. Studies on Argyllshire Gaelic. Uppsala: Almgvist & Wiksells. Holmer, Nils M. 1957. The Gaelic of Arran. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Holmer, Nils M. 1962. The Gaelic of Kintyre. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.; Other Sources: Dorian, Nancy C. 1978. "The Fate of Morphological Complexity in Language Death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic," Lg 54, 590-609.; Consonant system: ph t̪h (th) ch kh (ʔ) b d̪ (d ) ɟ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š ç x h v (z) ɣ m n̪ n̪̥ (n) ñ ñ̥ ŋ l l̥ lɯ ʎ (ʎ̥) r r̥ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ (th) (d) ch ɟ kh ɡ (ʔ) Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s (z) š ç x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ n̪̥ (n) ñ ñ̥ ŋ Laterals: l l̥ lɯ ʎ (ʎ̥) Vibrants: r r̥ Modified Consonants: c̄ nasals and liquids Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Y e ɛ œ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Nasal Vowels: (ṽ); Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N POSS-N N+A+D; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1845: Language: Manx; Location: England (Isle of Man; Population: extinct (20th century); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Vowel system:; Syntax: VSO

~~Number:~~ 1846: Language: Breton; Location: NW France; Population: 1.2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Brythonic Grammar: Ternes, Elmar. 1970. Grammaire structurale du breton de l'Ile de Groix. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.; TextBooks: Hemon, Roparz. 1972. Cours élémentaire de breton. n.p.: Al Liamm.; Other Sources: Hemon, Roparz. 1975. A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. AL 7:8; Consonant system: ph t̪h kh b d̪ ɡ čh ɡ̌ f s̪ š h v z̪ ž m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ r Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ Affricates: čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž h Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j ɥ w w̃; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ā ū ō ɑ̄ Nasal Vowels: (ɛ̃) Diphthongs: (ea) (eo) eā eō ei øy ou ae; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N POSS-N/(POSS-N-POSS) Num+N+A+D; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1847: Language: Welsh; Location: Great Britain (Wales); Population: 660,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Brythonic Dictionary: Evans, H. Meurig and W. O. Thomas. 1953. The New Welsh Dictionary. Llandebie: Christopher Davies. Grammar: James, Dan L. 1966. Modern Welsh Course. Cardiff: Univ of Wales Press.; TextBooks: Bowen, John T. 1960. Welsh. London: English Universities Press.; Other Sources: Hamp. Eric P. 1951. "Morphophonemes of the Keltic Mutations," Lg 27, 230-47.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ (ɡ̌) f θ s š x h v ð m n ŋ l l̥ r r̥ Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: (ɡ̌) Fricatives: f v θ ð s š x h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l l̥ Vibrants: r r̥ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ɨ̄ ā ū ō Diphthongs: ae ai au ei eu aw ew iw wi oe oi ou ow Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6 politeness: 2 intim, 2 pol [2 pol=5]; Syntax: VSO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N POSS-N/(POSS-N-POSS); Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1848: Language: Cornish; Location: England (Cornwall); Population: extinct (c. 1800); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Brythonic Grammar: Smith, A. S. D. 1965. Cornish Simplified. Cornwall: An Lef Kernewek.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š x h v ð m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s š x h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w w̥; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: aw ow aj ej ew oj Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N POSS-N/(POSS-N-POSS); Prep/Post: PREP

Обзоры типологий германских языков

~~Number:~~ 1849: Language: Proto-Germanic; Location: N Germany; Population: c. 500 B. C.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic Grammar: Coetsem, Frans van and Herbert L. Kufner, eds. 1972. Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.; Other Sources: Antonsen, Elmer M. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ f θ s̪ h hʷ z̪ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ Fricatives: f θ s̪ z̪ h hʷ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ǣ ū ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ei ai eu au; Syllable: nˈ lˈ rˈ Stress: initial; Syntax: SOV NA GN/NG ND N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1850: Language: Gothic Dialect: Crimean; Location: SW Russia (Crimea); Population: extinct (c. 1700 A.D.); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East Grammar: Stearns, MacDonald, Jr. 1978. Crimean Gothic. Saratoga, CA: Anma Libri.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ f θ s̪ š x v ɣ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k Fricatives: f v θ s̪ š x ɣ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Syntax: SVO AN

~~Number:~~ 1851: Language: Gothic; Location: E Bulgaria; Population: c. 350 A.D.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East Dictionary: Regan, Brian T. 1974. Dictionary of the Biblical Gothic Language. Phoenix: Wellspring Books. Grammar: Mossé, Fernand. 1956. Manuel de la langue gotique. Paris: Aubier. Krause, Wolfgang. 1968. Handbuch des Gotischen. Munich: C. H. Beck'sche.; Other Sources: Moulton, William G. 1948. "The Phonemics of Gothic," Lg 24, 76-86. Marchand, James W. 1973. The Sounds and Phonemes of Wulfila's Gothic. The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ f θ s xʷ h z m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ Fricatives: f θ s z xʷ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ s m n l r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: iu Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV NA NG DN N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP Comments: Except for Runic inscriptions, Wulfila's translation of the Bible in Gothic is the earliest Germanic Text.

~~Number:~~ 1852: Language: Vandalic; Location: Germany; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1853: Language: Burgundian; Location: Germany; Population: extinct; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1854: Language: Runic; Location: Norway; Population: c. 500 A.D.; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North Grammar: Antonsen, Elmer H. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ f θ s h z m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f θ s z h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ǣ ū ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ai iu ɵu au; Noun; Number: s p; Syntax: SOV NA GN(inan)/NG(anim) ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP Comments: Earliest attestation of a Germanic language.

~~Number:~~ 1855: Language: Danish; Location: Denmark; Population: 5 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North Dictionary: Nielsen, B. Kjaerulff. 1964. Engelsk-Dansk Ordbog. Copenhagen: Nordisk. Vinterberg, Hermann and C. A. Bodelsen: 1954,1956. Dansk-Engelsk Ordbog, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Nordisk. Grammar: Bredsdorff, Elias, 1970. Danish: An Elementary Grammar and Reader. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. Diderichsen, Paul. 1972. Essentials of Danish Grammar. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.; TextBooks: Koefoed, H. A. 1964. Teach Yourself Danish. London: English Universities Press. Norlev, Erling and H. A. Koefoed. 1973. The Way to Danish. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh ʔ f s š h v ð ɣ ʁ m n ŋ l Stops: p ph t th k kh ʔ Fricatives: f v ð s š ɣ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ʁ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ œ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Diphthongs: ai ɔi au ɔu ɛu œu eu iu yu øu Stress: usually initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: common (m+f) neuter Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common masc and fem are semantically determined by sex; common and neuter are grammatically determined by noun class. politeness: 2 & 5 each have polite and intimate forms; however 2 pol=5 pol; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1856: Language: Swedish; Location: Sweden; Population: 9 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North Dictionary: Wessely, Ignaz Emanuel. 1941. Wessely's Swedish-English Dictionary. Philadelphia: David McKay.; TextBooks: McClean, R. J. 1969. Teach Yourself Swedish. London : English Universities Press. Borland, Harold H. 1970. Swedish for Students. London: George G. Harrap.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: ph t̪h ṭh kh b d̪ ḍ ɡ f s̪ ṣ̌ ç h v m n̪ ṇ ŋ l̪ ḷ ɹ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ kh ɡ Fricatives: f v s̪ ṣ̌ ç h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ḷ Vibrants: ɹ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: y I ɛ œ æ Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ Ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ʋ̄ ō ɑ̄; Tones: fall fall-fall (falling tone accurs on monosyllabic words, fall-fall on polysyllabic words.) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: common (m+f) neuter Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol; Syntax: SVO AN GN(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1857: Language: Norwegian; Location: Norway; Population: 4 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North Dictionary: Gleditsch, T. 1948. Engelsk-Norsk Ordbok. Oslo: H. Aschehoug. Haugen, Einar, ed. 1965. Norwegian-English Dictionary. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.; TextBooks: Haugen, Einar. 1964. Spoken Norwegian. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Marm, Ingvald. 1967. Teach Yourself Norwegian. New York: David McKay.; Other Sources: Vanvik, Arne. 1972. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of Standard Eastern Norwegian," Norwegian Journal of Linguistics 25:2, 119-64.; Consonant system: p t̪ (ṭ) k b d̪ (ḍ) ɡ f s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h v m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ l̪ (ḷ) ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ (ṭ) (ḍ) k ɡ Fricatives: f v s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h Nasals: m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ Laterals: l̪ (ḷ) Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: y I ø ɛ æ Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai æʉ ɛi ɔi ʉi øy øu æi æu; Tones: lo-ris hi-fall-ris Stress: mostly initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: common (m+f) neuter Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol; Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS/(POSS-N) D+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP Comments: Modern Norwegian has two different standards. Bokmål reflects the heavy Danish influence during the Middle Ages, while Nynorsk represents an attempt to preserve a 'purer' older form of Norwegian, denuded of Danish borrowings. There is some hostility between the two gruops, but the two varieties of speech are easily mutually intellegible.

~~Number:~~ 1858: Language: Norwegian Dialect: Trondheim; Location: Norway; Population: 4 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North; Other Sources: Vanvik, Arne. 1966. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of the Dialect of Trondheim. Oslo: Universititsforlaget.; Consonant system: ph t̪h ṭh ch kh b d̪ ḍ ɟ ɡ f s š ç h v m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥ ɾ ɾ̣ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ ch ɟ kh ɡ Fricatives: f v s š ç h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥ Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ æ Central Vowels: ʉ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ū ō ɑ̄ Diphthongs: ei øy øʉ (ɑi) (ɔy); Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) nˈ lˈ; Tones: lo-level hi-fall; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1859: Language: Icelandic; Location: Iceland; Population: 210,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North Dictionary: Arngrı́mur, Sigurdsson. 1970. Íslenzk-ensk orðabók. Reykjavik: Prentsmiðjan Leiftur. Bogason, Sigurður Örn. 1966. English-Icelandic Dictionary. Reykjavik: Isafoldarprentsmiðja. Grammar: Einarsson, Stefán. 1967. Icelandic: Grammar, Texts, Glossary. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univ Press.; TextBooks: Glendening, P. J. T. 1961. Teach Yourself Icelandic. London: English Universities Press. TD: Jónsson, Snoebjörn. 1966. A Primer of Modern Icelandic. London: Oxford Univ Press.; Other Sources: Haugen, Einar. 1958. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," Lg 34, 55-88. Malone, Kemp. 1970. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," in Studies in Honor of Albert Morey Sturtevant, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 5-21. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh f θ s h v ð m n ŋ l r Stops: p ph t th k kh Fricatives: f v θ ð s h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i I Y ø ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ui ei oi ou ai øi au Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3mfn 6mfn politeness: 2 forms of 2: (1) intim [2 pol=5] (2) pol; Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1860: Language: Faroese; Location: Netherlands (Faroe Islands); Population: 40,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North Dictionary: Svabo, J. C. 1966, 1970. Dictionarium Færoense. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. Grammar: Lockwood, W. G. 1955. An Introduction to Modern Faroese. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.; Consonant system: ph t̪h kh b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s ṣ š h v m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ ʎ r Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s ṣ š h Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t d k ɡ f s m n l r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ↔ō ā ū ō Diphthongs: ɛa ɔa ʋY ɔu ʉu ai ɛi ɔi Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mfn politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol; Syntax: SVO AN NG/(GN) DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1861: Language: German; Location: Germany; Population: 100 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West Dictionary: Betteridge, Harold T., ed. 1958. The New Cassell's German Dictionary. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Grammar: Lederer, Herbert. 1969. Reference Grammar of the German Language. New York: Charles Scribner's.; TextBooks: Lohnes, Walter F. W. and F. W. Strothmann. 1967. German: A Structural Approach. New York: Norton.; Other Sources: Moulton, William G. 1962. The Sounds of English and German. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.; Consonant system: ph t̪h kh (ʔ) b d̪ ɡ pf t̪s f s š x h v z ž ʁ m n̪ ŋ l̪ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ (ʔ) Affricates: pf t̪s Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ʁ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ū ō ɑ̄ Diphthongs: ai oi au Stress: generally initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 1 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6 + indef politeness: 2 & 5 each have familiar & polite forms; however 2 pol = 5 pol; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1862: Language: Yiddish; Location: W Russia; Population: 4 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West Dictionary: Bergman, Aaron. 1968. Student's Dictionary: English-Yiddish, Yiddish-English. New York: Kinderbuch. Grammar: Fal'kovich, E. M. 1966. "Evrejskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 599-629.; TextBooks: Weinreich, Uriel. 1967. College Yiddish. New York: Yivo Institute for Jewish Research.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č f s š x h v z ž ʁ m n l lɯ Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts č Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h Nasals: m n Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: ʁ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Diphthongs: aj ej oj; Syllable: nˈ lˈ Stress: phonemic, but mostly penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6 + indef; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP Comments: In 1939 there were an estimated twelve million speakers of Yiddish, Hitler's massacre of the Jews during WWII, and the subsequent dispersal of East European Jews around the world (with consequent assimilation to various cultures and languages) has reduced the number to perhaps four million.

~~Number:~~ 1863: Language: Luxembourgeois; Location: Luxembourg; Population: 390,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1864: Language: Dutch; Location: Netherlands; Population: 20 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West Dictionary: Prick Van Wely, F. P. H. 1951. Cassell's English-Dutch, Dutch-English Dictionary. London: Cassell.; TextBooks: Bloomfield, Leonard. 1944. Spoken Dutch. New York: Holt. Shetter, Wiiliam Z. 1958. Introduction to Dutch. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Koolhoven, H. 1961. Dutch. New York: David McKay.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d (č) f s š x h v z (ɣ) ʁ m n ŋ l Stops: p b t d k Affricates: (č) Fricatives: f v s z š x (ɣ) h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ʁ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ œ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ā ū ō Diphthongs: ɛi œi yu ɔu āi ōi ūi īu ēu Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: common (m+f) neuter Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6 politeness: 2 = 2fam; 5 = 2 pol & 5; Syntax: SOV/SVO AN NG/(GN) DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1865: Language: Afrikaans; Location: South Africa; Population: 3 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West; TextBooks: Burgers, M. P. O. 1957. Teach Yourself Afrikaans. London: The English Universities Press.; Other Sources: Pienaar, P. de V. and A. G. Hooper. 1948. An Afrikaans-English Phonetic Reader. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand Univ. Press. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d (ɡ) č f s š x v (z) ɦ m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k (ɡ) Affricates: č Fricatives: f v s (z) š x ɦ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: ɛ œ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: ɔ Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ (↔ē) (ǝ̄) ā ū ō ɔ̄ Diphthongs: ai āi ǝi ɔi ɔ̄i ui ōi ēu ou œy; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6 politeness: + 2 polite; Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1866: Language: Frisian; Location: Netherlands (Frisian Islands); Population: 730,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ f s x h z m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f s z x h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Comments: Frisian, the language most closely related to English, has for some time been on the decline. All speakers are bilingual in Dutch or German.

~~Number:~~ 1867: Language: English Dialect: British; Location: England; Population: 300 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West Grammar: Quirk, Randolph and Sidney Greenbaum. 1973. A Concise Grammar of Contemporary English. New York : Harcount Brace Jovanovich.; Other Sources: Jones, Daniel. 1950. An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons. Gimson, A. C. 1962. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Edward Arnold. AL 7:8; Consonant system: ph th kh b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š h v ð z ž m n ŋ l ɹ̣ Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɹ̣ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e æ Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ ɒ Long Vowels: ī ǝ̄ ū ɔ̄ ɑ̄ Diphthongs: eI aI ɔI oʋ ɑʋ Iǝ ɛǝ ʋa; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6 2=5 politeness: a few varieties of British English preserve a polite/intimate distinction for the 2 pronoun (i.e thou/you); Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1868: Language: English Dialect: Scottish; Location: Scotland; Population: 300 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š x h v ð z ž m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ʌ; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1869: Language: English Dialect: West Canadian; Location: W Canada; Population: 300 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š h v ð z ž m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1870: Language: English Dialect: American; Location: USA; Population: 300 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West Dictionary: Guralnik, David B., ed. 1970. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Grammar: Stageberg, Norman C. 1971. An Introductory English Grammar. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.; Other Sources: Kenyon, John Samuel. 1943. American Pronunciation. Ann Arbar: George Wahr. Thomas, Charles Kenneth. 1958. An Introduction to the Phonetics of American English. New York: The Ronald Press. King, Harold V. 1961. English Phonology. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Publishers. Bronstein, Arthur J. 1960. The Pronunciation of American English. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. AL 7:8; Consonant system: ph th kh b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š h hʷ v ð z ž m n ŋ lɯ ɹ̣ Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h hʷ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: lɯ Vibrants: ɹ̣ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Central Vowels: (ɨ̄) ǝ ɐ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ ɑ Diphthongs: Ii eI aI ɔI oʋ ʋu aʋ; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

Обзоры типологий балтских языков

~~Number:~~ 1871: Language: Old Prussian; Location: NE Poland; Population: extinct (c. 1700); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: West Dictionary: Toporov, V. N. 1975. Prusskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka. Grammar: Schmalstieg, William R. 1974. An Old Prussian Grammar. University Park: Pennsyvania State Univ Press.; Other Sources: Levin, Jules F. 1974. The Slavic Element in the Old Prussian Elbing Vocabulary. UCPL 77.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ (f) s̪ š (h) v z̪ (ž) m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š (ž) (h) Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj all Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai au ei Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mf; Syntax: NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1872: Language: Latvian; Location: Latvia; Population: 2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: East Grammar: Grabis, R. 1966. "Latyshskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 466-99.; TextBooks: Lazdina, Tereza Budina. 1966. Teach Yourself Latvian. London: English Universities Press.; Other Sources: Grava, Arnolds. 1970. "Phonemic Inventory of Vowels and Diphthongs in Latvian," Linguistics 56, 31-51. Al 7:8; Consonant system: p t c k b d ɟ ɡ ts (č) dz ɡ̌ (f) s š x (h) v z ž m n ñ l ʎ r rj Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz (č) ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x (h) Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r rj Modified Consonants: c̄ m n ñ l ʎ r j v Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ) Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū Diphthongs: ai au ei ie ui uo (oi); Tones: long-level falling ris-ʔ-fall Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf 2=intim; 5=2 polite & 2 pl; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1873: Language: Latvian Dialect: Lagalian; Location: Latvia; Population: 2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: East; Other Sources: Al 7:8; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š (x) (h) v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž (x) (h) Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ā ū; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1874: Language: Lithuanian; Location: Lithuania; Population: 3 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: East Dictionary: Laučka, A., B. Piesarskas and E. Stasiulevičiute. 1978. English Lithuanian Dictionary. Vilnius: Mokslas. Grammar: Ambrazas, V. 1966. "Litovskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 501-27. Peterson, M. N. 1955. Ocherk litovskogo jazyka. Moscow.; TextBooks: Dambriunas, Leonardas, Antanas Klimas and William R. Schmalstieg. 1966. Introdution to Modern Lithuanian. Brooklyn: Franciscan Fathers Press.; Other Sources: Klimas, Antanas. 1970. "Some Attempts to Inventory Lithuanian Phonames," in Baltic Linguistics, ed. by Thomas F. Magner and William R. Schmalstieg, University Park, Penneylvania State Univ Press, 93-102.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ (f) s š (x) h v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž (x) h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj all Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au ei ie ui uo; Syllable: (C) (C)V(N,L); Tones: rls fall short; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6mf 2=intim; 5=2 polite & 2 pl; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

Обзоры типологий славянских языков

~~Number:~~ 1875: Language: Russian; Location: Russia; Population: 150 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: East Dictionary: Smirnitsky, A. I. 1959. Russian-English Dictionary. New York: E. P. Dutton. Müller, V. K. 1959. English-Russian Dictionary. New York: E. P. Dutton. Grammar: Forbes, Nevill. 1964. Russian Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Panov, M. V. 1966. "Russkij jazyk," in JNS 1, 55-122. Bidwell, Charles E. 1969. The Structure of Russian in Outline. Pittsburgh: Univ of Pittsburgh Press .; TextBooks: Stilman, Galina, Leon Stilman and William E. Harkins. 1972. Introductory Russian Grammar. Lexington, Mass: Xerox.; Other Sources: Jones, Daniel and Dennis Ward. 1969. The Phonetics of Russian. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. Auty, Robert and Dimitri Obolensky. 1977. An Introduction to Russian Language and Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č f s š x v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts č Fricatives: f v s z š ž x Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj p b t d k f v s z m n l r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: ij ɨj ej aj oj uj; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6 2=intim, 5= 2pol + 2 pl; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1876: Language: Byelorussian; Location: Belarus; Population: 10 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: East Dictionary: Krapivy, K. K., ed. 1962. Belorussko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Russko-belorusskij slovar'. 1953. Moscow Birillo, N. Y., M. G. Bulaxov and M. R. Sudnik. 1966. "Belorusskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 154-93.; TextBooks: Pashkievich, V. 1974, 1978. Fundamental Byelorussian, 2 vols. Toronto.; Other Sources: Bidwell, Charles E. 1967. Outline of Bielorussian Morphology. Pittsburgh. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ (ɡ) t̪s č (dz) ɡ̌ (f) s̪ š x h v z̪ ž m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ) Affricates: t̪s (d̪z) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž x h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ ts dz č s z š ž n l cj all but t d ts č ɡ̌ š ž r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1877: Language: Ukrainian; Location: Ukraine; Population: 40 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: East Dictionary: Podvezko, M. L. and M. I. Balla. 1974. English-Ukrainian Dictionary. Kiev: Radyanska Shkola. Andrusyshen, C. H. and J. N. Krett. 1957. Ukrainian-English Dictionary. Toronto: Univ of Toronto Press. Grammar: Beloded, I. K. and M. A. Zhovtobrjux. 1966. "Ukrainskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 123-53.; TextBooks: Slavutych, Yar. 1969. Conversational Ukrainian. Edmonton: Gateway.; Other Sources: Bidwell, Charles E. 1971. Outline of Ukrainian Morphology. Pittsburgh: Univ Center for International Studies, Univ of Pittsburgh. Chopyk, Dan B. 1973. "Variant Phonemic Systems of Contemporary Standard Ukrainian," Linguistics 98, 5-19. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č (dz) ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts (dz) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj t d n s z ts dz l r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1878: Language: Polish; Location: Poland; Population: 35 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West Dictionary: Stanislawski, Jan. 1964. The Great English-Polish Dictionary. Warsaw: State Publishing House. Grammar: Brooks, Maria Zagorska. 1975. Polish Referece Grammar. The Hague: Mouton.; TextBooks: Schenker, Alexander M. 1973. Beginning Polish, 2 vols. New Haven: Yale Univ Press.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č ć d̪z ɡ̌ ɟ́ f s̪ š ś x v z̪ ž ź m n̪ ñ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ ć ɟ́ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ś ź x Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj p b k ɡ f v x m Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɔ Nasal Vowels: (ɛ̃) ɔ̃ Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mM M=non-masc; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1879: Language: Kashubian; Location: N Poland; Population: 3,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West Grammar: GD: Perkowski, Jan Louis. 1969. A Kashubian Idiolect in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Stokhof, W. A. L. 1973. The Extinct East-Slovencian Kluki-Dialect. The Hague: Mouton.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š x v z̪ ž m n̪ l r ř ř is a voiced apical alveolar sibilant trill) Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ř (voiced apical alveolar sibilant trill) Modified Consonants: cj p b f v m n l t d Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Nasal Vowels: ẽ ã Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6; Syntax: SVO AN NG/(GN) DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP Comments: all bilingual in Polish

~~Number:~~ 1880: Language: Polabian; Location: N Germany; Population: extinct (c. 1740); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West Dictionary: Polań́ski, Kazimierz and james Allen Sehnert. 1967. Polabian-English Dictionary. The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts dz f s x v z m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: f v s z x Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj all but f Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a Back Vowels: u o ɑ Nasal Vowels: ã õ Diphthongs: ai ɑi oi au ɑu Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f n Articles: def; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1881: Language: Upper Sorbian Alternate Name: Lusatian; Location: SE Germany; Population: 55,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj p b t d s z n l r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Stress: initial

~~Number:~~ 1882: Language: Lower Sorbian; Location: E Germany; Population: 14,000; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1883: Language: Czech; Location: Czech Republic; Population: 10 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West Grammar: Mazon, André. 1952. Grammaire de la langue tchèque. Paris: Institut d'Études Slaves. Harkins, William E. 1953. A Modern Czech Grammar. New York: King's Crown Press.; TextBooks: Schwarz, J. 1960. Colloquial Czech. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ (ɡ) t̪s č (f) s š x v z ž ɦ m n̪ l r ř (ř = rž < rj) Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ) Affricates: t̪s č Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x ɦ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ř (= rž < rj) Modified Consonants: cj t d n Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ɛ̄ ā ū (ō) Diphthongs: ou; Syllable: lˈ rˈ Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1884: Language: Slovak; Location: Slovakia; Population: 4 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West Dictionary: šimko, Ján. 1968. English-Slovak Dictionary. Bratislava: Pedagogical Publishing House. Grammar: Bartoš, Jozef and Joseph Gagnaire. 1972. Grammaire de la langue slovaque. Paris: Institut d'Études Slaves.; TextBooks: Baláž, Peter, Jozef Bartoš and Miloslav Darovec. 1973. Manuel de slovaque à l'usage des slavisants. Bratislava: Slovenské Pedagogické Nakladatel'stvo.; Other Sources: AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š x h v z̪ ž m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj t d n l Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but æ Diphthongs: ia ie iu uo; Syllable: lˈ rˈ Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 1; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mM m=masc M=non-masc; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1885: Language: Old Church Slavonic; Location: Bulgaria; Population: extinct (c. 1,000 A. D.); Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South Grammar: Lunt, Horace G. 1974. Old Church Slavonic Grammar. The Hague: Mouton. Schmalstieg, William T. 1976. An Introduction to Old Church Slavic. Cambridge, MA: Slavica.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č dz s̪ š x v z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ r rj Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: ts d̪z č Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ š ž x Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r rj Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ æ Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ ? Ĭ ʋ̆ Nasal Vowels: ɛ̃ ɔ̃; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3 *6d *6; Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1886: Language: Slovene Alternate Name: Slovenian; Location: Slovenia; Population: 2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South Dictionary: Kotnik, Janko. 1962. Slovene-English Dictionary. Ljubljana: Državna Založba Slovenije. Grad, Anton. 1971. English-Slovene Dictionary. Ljubljana.; Other Sources: Lenček, Rado L. 1966. The Verb Pattern of Contemporary Standard Slovene. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Bidwell, Charles E. 1969. Outline of Slovenian Morphology. Pittsburgh: Univ Center for International Studies, Univ of Pittsburgh. AL 7:8; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č f s̪ š x v z̪ ž m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s č Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄; Syllable: rˈ; Tones: ris fall Stress: on v̄, final if no v̄; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3mfn 6dmM 6mfn m=masc M=non-masc; Syntax: SVO NUM-N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1887: Language: Serbo-Croatian; Location: Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Yugoslavia; Population: 17 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South Dictionary: Drvodelić, Milan. 1970. Croato-Serbian English Dictionary. Zagreb: školska Knjiga. Rustić, Svetomir and živojin Simić. 1975. An English-Serbocroatian Dictionary. Belgrad: Prosveta. Grammar: Grozdić, Oton. 1969. Serbo-Croatian Grammar and Reader. New York: Hafner. Popović, Alexandre and Michel Popović. 1969. Manuel pratique de langue serbo-croate. Paris: Klinksieck. Dmitriev, P. A. and G. I. Safronov. 1975. Serboxorvatskij jazyk. Leningrad: Leningrad Univ. Press. Hamm, Josip. 1975. Grammatik der serbokroatischen Sprache. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; TextBooks: Magner, Thomas F. 1972. Introduction to the Croatian and Serbian Language. State College, PA: Singidunum Press. Javarek, Vera and Miroslava Sudjić. 1969. Teach Yourself Serbo-Croat. London: English Universities Press.; Other Sources: Hodge, Carleton T. 1946. "Serbo-Croatian Phonemes," Lg 22, 112-20 Bidwell Charles E. 1964. "The Serbo-Croatian Verb," Lg 40, 532-50.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č ć ɡ̌ ɟ́ f s š h v z ž m n̪ ñ l ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s ć ɟ́ č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) rˈ; Tones: ris fall; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mfn; Syntax: SVO AN NG/(GN) DN NUM-N POSS-N Num+A+N; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1888: Language: Macedonian; Location: Macedonia; Population: 2 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South Dictionary: Kitanovski, Dano. 1967. Frantsusko-makedonski rechnik. Skopje. Grammar: Lunt, Horace G. 1952. A Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language. Skopje.; Other Sources: AL 7:8 WALS WPF; Consonant system: p t̪ c k b d̪ ɟ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š h v z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l lɯ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1889: Language: Bulgarian; Location: Bulgaria; Population: 8 million; Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South Dictionary: Atanasova, T., et al. 1975. Bulgarian-English Dictionary. Sofia: Nauka i Izkustvo. Atanasova, T., et al. 1973. English-Bulgarian Dictionary, 2 vols. Sofia: Academy of Sciences.; Other Sources: Van Campen, Joseph A. 1959. "Alternative Analyses of the Bulgarian Nonsyllabic Phonemes," Lg 35, 264-70. Aronson, Howard I. 1968. Bulgarian Inflectional Morphophonology. The Hague: Mouton. Scatton, Ernest A. 1975. Bulgarian Phonology. Cambrige, MA: Slavica. Al 7:8; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č (dz) (ɡ̌) f s š x v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts (dz) č (ɡ̌) Fricatives: f v s z š ž x Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj all but č ɡ̌ š ž x Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6; Syntax: SVO AN POSS-N; Prep/Post: PREP

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Уральской семьи

Языки уральской семьи ведут свою историю от прауральского языка (см. протоуральский словарь).

~~Number:~~ 1893: Language: Nenets; Location: NC Russia (Nenets National Okrug); Population: 25,000; Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: North Dictionary: Lehtisalo, T. 1956. Juraksamojedishes Wörterbuch. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Pyrerka, A.P. and N.M. Tereshchenko. 1948. Russko-nenetskij slovar'. Moscow. Tereshchenko, N.M. 1965. Nenetsko-russkij slovar. Moscow. Grammar: Décsy, Gyula. 1966. Yurak Chrestomathy. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Tereshchenko, N.M. 1966. "Nenetskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 376-95.; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b d (ɡ) ts s x β (z) m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k (ɡ) ʔ Affricates: ts Fricatives: β s (z) x Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ j cj all but k ɡ ʔ j β x ŋ Glides: j; Vowel system: i ɯ u e ɤ o a Front Vowels: i e Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: CV(C)(C)(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 2+ref Articles: def indef: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1894: Language: Enets Alternate Name: Yenets; Location: NC Russia; Population: 300; Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: North Grammar: Tereshchenko, N.M. 1966. "Enetskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 438-57.; Consonant system: p t c k ʔ ʔ ̃ (nasalized ɡlottal stop) b d ɟ ɡ č s sʷ š šʷ (x) (β) ð m n ñ (ŋ) l r Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ ʔ ʔ̃ (nasalized ɡlottal stop) Affricates: č Fricatives: (β) ð s sʷ š šʷ (x) Nasals: m n ñ (ŋ) Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ t d ɡ n Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: diphthonɡs; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s d p; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1895: Language: Nganasan Alternate Name: Tavgy; Location: NC Russia (Taymyr Peninsula); Population: 750; Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: North Grammar: Tereshchenko, N.M. 1966. "Nganasanskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 416-37.; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b d ɡ č s x ð m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ Affricates: č Fricatives: ð s x Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj ̄ d n l Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e æ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ie ia eu æu au yæ ya yo ǝu ɨǝ ua uo ou; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 4?+REF: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1896: Language: Selkup Dialect: Taz; Location: NW Russia (Xanty-Mansiysk); Population: 3,800; Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: South Dictionary: Erdélyi, István. 1970. Selkupisches Wörterverzeichnis. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Grammar: Prokofjeva. E.D. 1966. "Sel'kupskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 396-415.; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p t k q č s š β m n ñ ŋ l ʎ r Stops: p t k q Affricates: č Fricatives: β s š Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but č β ŋ r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɒ Long Vowels: v̄; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 4? Articles: def indef: Pronouns: 1 4d* 4* 2 5d* 5* 3 6d 6 *[4d=4 & 5d=5 in some case forms (e.g. nom.), but not in others (e.g. dat.)]; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1897: Language: Selkup Dialect: Tym; Location: NW Russia (Xanty-Mansiysk); Population: 3,800; Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: South Grammar: GD: Katz, Hartmut. 1975. Selcupica 1. Materialen vom Tym. Munich: Finno-Ugric Seminar, Univ of Munich.; Other Sources: Szabó, László. 1967. Selkup Texts. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k q b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) s š (x) v ʁ m n̪ ñ ŋ l ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s š (x) ʁ Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ t s š m n l only cʷ t c k q č s Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all but æ Diphthongs: au ou Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s d p; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1898: Language: Kamas Alternate Name: Sayan Samoyed; Location: Russia; Population: (+) 1970; Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: South; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b d ɡ ts dz s š h β z ž ɣ m n ñ ŋ l ʎ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: β s z š ž ɣ h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cj s z Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o ɤ ɒ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Diphthongs: ia iɛ ie yɛ yɤ uǝ yǝ iy Stress: initial; Noun
Number: s [d] p Articles: def: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1899: Language: Hungarian; Location: Hungary; Population: 14 million; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Ugric Dictionary: Országh, László. 1953. Hungarian-English Dictionary. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Országh, László. 1960. English-Hungarian Dictionary. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Grammar: Benkő, Loránd and Samu Imre, eds. 1972. The Hungarian Language. The Hague: Mouton. Tompa, József. 1972. Kleine ungarische Grammatik. Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie. Hall, Robert A. 1944. Hungarian Grammar. Lg Monograph No. 21.; TextBooks: Bánhidi, Z. Z. Jókay and D. Szabó. 1965. A Textbook of the Hungarian Language. London: Collet's.; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p t̪ c k b d̪ ɟ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š h v z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ ø Back Vowels: u o ɒ Long Vowels: v̄ i y e ø a u o; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1900: Language: Xanty Alternate Name: Ostyak, Khanty Dialect: Northern; Location: NW Russia (Xanty-Mansiysk); Population: 15,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Ugric: Ob-Ugric; Other Sources: Rédei, Károly. 1965. Northern Ostyak Chrestomathy. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. SUL; Consonant system: p t k ts č s š x m n ŋ l (ḷ) r Stops: p t k Affricates: ts č Fricatives: s š x Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l (ḷ) Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cj t s n (l) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: e a ʋ ɔ; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1901: Language: Xanty Alternate Name: Ostyak Dialect: Eastern; Location: NW Russia (Xanty-Mansiysk); Population: 15,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Ugric: Ob-Ugric Dictionary: Toivonen, Y.H. 1948. Ostjakkisches Wörterbuch. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.; Other Sources: Gulya, János. 1966. Eastern Ostyak Chrestomathy. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t k č̣ s (š) ɣ m n ṇ ŋ l ḷ r Stops: p t k Affricates: č̣ Fricatives: s (š) ɣ Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj t n l Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Modified Vowels: v̆(reduced) e ø ǝ o Stress: initial or second; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1902: Language: Xanty Alternate Name: Ostyak Dialect: Western; Location: NW Russia (Xanty-Mansiysk); Population: 15,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Ugric: Ob-Ugric Grammar: Tereshkin, N.I. 1966. "Xantyjskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 319-42.; Consonant system: p t̪ k s̪ š x m n̪ ŋ l r Stops: p t̪ k Fricatives: s̪ š x Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj t s n Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: o Long Vowels: e u ɔ ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1903: Language: Mansi Alternate Name: Vogul; Location: NW Russia (Xanty-Mansiysk); Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Ugric: Ob-Ugric Dictionary: Rombandeeva, E.I. 1954. Russko-Mansijskij slovar'. Leningrad. Grammar: Rombandeeva, E.I. 1966. "Mansijskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 343-60 Rombandeeva, E.I. 1973. Mansijskij (vogul'skij) jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.; Other Sources: Kálmán, Béla. 1965. Vogul Chrestomathy. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. SUL; Consonant system: p t̪ c k kʷ s̪ š x ɣ m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ ʎ r Stops: p t̪ c k kʷ Fricatives: s̪ š x ɣ Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1904: Language: Udmurt Alternate Name: Votyak; Location: NW Russia (Udmurt ASSR); Population: 700,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Permic Dictionary: Russko-udmurtskij slovar'. 1956. Moscow. Grammar: Tepljashina, T.I. 1966. "Udmurtskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 261-80. Tepljashina, T.I. 1970. Jazyk besermyan. Moscow: Nauka.; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ (f) s̪ š (x) v z̪ ž m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž (x) Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj t d s z č ɡ̌ s z n l Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST

~~Number:~~ 1905: Language: Komi Dialect: Zyrian; Location: NW Russia (Komi ASSR); Population: 430,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Permic Dictionary: Timushev, D.A. and N.A. Kolegova. 1961. Komi-russkij slovar. Moscow. Russko-komi slovar'. 1966. Syktyvkar: Komi Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo. Grammar: Lytkin, V.I. 1966a. "Komi-zyrjanskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 281-99. Lytkin, V.I. 1966b. "Komi-permjatskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 300-15.; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ (f) s̪ š (x) v z̪ ž m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž (x) Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cj ̄ t d č ɡ̌ s z n l Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: mostly initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1906: Language: Komi Dialect: Yazva; Location: NW Russia (Komi ASSR); Population: 430,000 (4,000); Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Permic Grammar: Lytkin, V.I. 1961. Komi-jaz'vinskij dialekt. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k d̪ ɟ ɡ č ɡ̌ s̪ š v z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l̪ ʎ r Stops: p t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ š ž Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj̄ s z č ɡ̌ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɑ; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1907: Language: Mari Alternate Name: Cheremis Dialect: Eastern; Location: W Russia (Mari ASSR); Population: 546,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Volgaic Dictionary: D: Marijsko-russkij slovar'. 1956. Moscow. Grammar: G: Sebeok, Thomas A. and Frances J. Ingemann. 1961. An Eastern Cheremis Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Kovedjaeva, E.I. 1966. "Lugovo-vostochnyj marijskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 221-40; Other Sources: O: Minn, Eeva K. 1956. Studies in Cheremis, vol 4: Derivation. IJAL 22:2. Part II. Ristinen, Elaine K. 1960. "An East Cheremis Phonology," in American Studies in Uralic Linguistics, Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ k (t̪s) č (f) s̪ š (x) β ð z̪ ž ɣ m n̪ ñ ŋ l ʎ ɾ Stops: p t̪ k Affricates: (t̪s) č Fricatives: β (f) ð s̪ z̪ š ž (x) ɣ Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Stress: stress: non-phonemic; Noun
~~Number:~~ num: s p Demonstratives: dem: 2 Articles: art: indef: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1908: Language: Mari Alternate Name: Cheremis Dialect: Western; Location: W Russia (Mari ASSR); Population: 546,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Volgaic Dictionary: Ivanov, I.G. and G.M. Tuzharov. 1971. Slovar' severo-zapadnogo narechija marijskogo jazyka. Joshkar-Ola. Grammar: Kovedjaeva, E.I. 1966. "Gornomarijskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 241-54. Ivanov, I.G. and G.M. Tuzharov. 1970. Severo-zapadnoe narechie marijskogo jazyka. Joshkar-Ola: Marijskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo.; Other Sources: Minn, Eeva K. 1956. Studies in Cheremis, Vol 4: Derivation. IJAL 22:2 Part II. SUL; Consonant system: p t̪ c k (b) t̪s č (f) s̪ š (x) β ð z̪ ž ɣ m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ ʎ r Stops: p (b) t̪ c k Affricates: t̪s č Fricatives: β (f) ð s̪ z̪ š ž (x) ɣ Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɤ; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1909: Language: Mordvin Dialect: Erzja; Location: W Russia (W Mordvin ASSR); Population: 1.3 million; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Volgaic Dictionary: Koljadenkov, M.N. and N.F. Tsyganov, eds. 1948. Russko-erzjanskij slovar'. Moscow. Koljadenkov, M.N. and N.F. Tsyganov, eds. 1949. Erzjansko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Feoktistov, A.P. 1966. "Erzjanskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 177-98.; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č (f) s̪ š (x) v z̪ ž m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s č Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž (x) Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ t s... cj t d ts s z n l r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO/SOV AN GN DN/ND NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+N+D/Num+D+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1910: Language: Mordvin Dialect: Moksha; Location: W Russia (W Mordvin ASSR); Population: 1.3 million; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Volgaic Dictionary: Potapkin, S.G. and A.K. Imjarekov. 1949. Mokshansko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Potapkin, S.G. and A.K. Imjarekov. 1961. Russko-mokshanskij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Foektisov, A.P. 1966. "Mokshanskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 199-220.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č f s̪ š x v z̪ ž m n̪ l̪ ɬ̪ r r̥ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s č Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ ɬ̪ Vibrants: r r̥ Modified Consonants: cj ̄ t d ts s z n l ɬ r r̥ j Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN/ND NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1911: Language: Northern Saami Dialect: Ruija: Finnmark; Location: Norway; Population: 20,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic; Other Sources: SUL; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh ts tsh f θ s š h v ð m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p ph t th k kh Affricates: ts tsh Fricatives: f v θ ð s š h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all? Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: i æ a ʋ Diphthongs: uo oa ie... Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN NUM-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1912: Language: Eastern Saami Dialect: Kola; Location: NW Russia (Kola Peninsula); Population: 1,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic Grammar: Kert, G.M. 1966. "Saamskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 155-71. Kert, G.M. 1971. Sammskij jazyk. Leningrad: Nauka.; Other Sources: Kert, G.M. 1961. Obraztsy sammskoj rechi. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž m n n̥ ŋ l l̥ r r̥ Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h Nasals: m n n̥ ŋ Laterals: l l̥ Vibrants: r r̥ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but z zj ž žj cj all but n̥ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o ɒ Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: ua uɛ ai ɛi ji o̜i ɒi, triph: uɛi uai; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1913: Language: Northern Saami Dialect: Ruija: Jukkasjärvi; Location: N Sweden; Population: 20,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic Grammar: Collinder, Björn. 1949. The Lappish Dialect of Jukkasjärvi. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f s h β v ð ž m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: β f v ð s ž h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (e) Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: diphthonɡs Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SVO NUM-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1914: Language: Northern Saami Dialect: Lule; Location: Sweden; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1915: Language: Northern Saami Dialect: Pite; Location: Sweden (Pite River), Norway; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1916: Language: Eastern Saami Dialect: Inari; Location: Finland (Lake Inari); Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1917: Language: Eastern Saami Dialect: Skolt; Location: Russia (Kola Peninsula); Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1918: Language: Southern Saami; Location: Sweden; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic Dictionary: Lagercrantz, Eliel. 1939. Lappischer Wortschatz, 2 vols. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.; Other Sources: Hasselbrink, Gustav. 1965. Alternate Analyses of the Phonemic System in Central South-Lappish. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č d̪z ɡ̌ f s̪ š h v m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: ie oa oe ue uo Stress: initial Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1919: Language: Southern Saami Dialect: Ume; Location: Sweden (Ume River); Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1920: Language: Finnish; Location: Finland; Population: 5 million; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic Dictionary: Vuolle, Aino. 1969. Finnish-English Dictionary. Porvoo, Finland: Werner Söderström. Vuolle, Aino. 1964. English-Finnish Dictionary. Porvoo, Finland: Werner Söderström. Grammar: Austerlitz, Robert P. 1963. Finnish Grammar. Cleverland: Bell & Howell. Atkinson, John. 1969. Finnish Grammar. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Hakulinen, Lauri. 1957, 1960. Handbuch der finnischen Sprache, 2 vols. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; TextBooks: Lehtinen, Meri. 1963. Basic Course in Finnish. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Whitney, Arthur H. 1968. Teach Yourself Finnish. New York: David Mckay.; Consonant system: p t̪ k (ʔ) (b) d̪ ɡ (f) s (š) h v m n̪ ŋ l̪ r Stops: p (b) t̪ d̪ k ɡ (ʔ) Fricatives: (f) v s (š) h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but d v h j Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: uo ie yø au ou eu iu æy øy ai oi ui æi øi yi; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2+REF; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3hH 6hH Politeness: 2 intim & 2 pol [2 pol = 5]; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1921: Language: Ingrian; Location: NW Russia; Population: 350; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic Grammar: Laanest, A. 1966. "Izhorskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 102-17.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č (f) s š h v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts č Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k s m n l r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: ̄v̄ all Diphthongs: ai æi oi øi ui yi ei au ou eu iu æy øy; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN DN NUM-N POSS-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1922: Language: Karelian; Location: NW Russia; Population: 128,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic Grammar: Makarov, G.N. 1966. "Karel'skij jazyk," in JNS 3, 61-80; Consonant system: p t̪ t̪j k b d̪ d̪j ɡ (t̪s) č ɡ̌ (f) s̪ s̪j š (x) h v z̪ z̪j ž m n̪ n̪j l̪ l̪j r rj Stops: p b t̪ t̪j d̪ d̪j k ɡ Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ s̪j z̪ z̪j š ž (x) h Nasals: m n̪ n̪j Laterals: l̪ l̪j Vibrants: r rj Modified Consonants: c̄ p t tj k č sj š m n nj l lj r rj Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: (v̄) Diphthongs: diphthonɡs triphthonɡs; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2+ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3ai 6ai; Syntax: AN DN NUM-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1923: Language: Olonets Alternate Name: Livvi; Location: NW Russia; Population: 80,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1924: Language: Ludic Alternate Name: Ludian; Location: NW Russia; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1925: Language: Vepsian; Location: NW Russia (Karelian ASSR); Population: 30,000; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic Dictionary: Zajtseva, M.I. and M.I. Mullonen. 1972. Slovar' vepsskogo jazyka. Leningrad: Nauka. Grammar: Xjamjaljajnen, M.M. 1966. "Vepsskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 81-101.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č (ɡ̌) f s̪ š v z̪ ž ɦ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s č (ɡ̌) Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ɦ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k s l m n cj all but č š ž Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Diphthongs: ai ei ij oi ui æi øi yi au ou uw æu øu yu; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie* 2 5ie* 3 6ie* *Vepsian has a special set of plural pronouns indicating membership in a group (e.g. family, home, village) (i.e. exclusive?) as opposed to the plain (inclusive?) forms.; Syntax: SVO/SOV AN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1926: Language: Votic; Location: NW Russia; Population: 100; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic Grammar: Adler, E. 1966. "Vodskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 118-37. Ariste, Paul. 1968. A Grammar of the Votic Language. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ t̪s č (ɡ̌) (f) s̪ (š) (x) h v z̪ (ž) m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s č (ɡ̌) Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ (š) (ž) (x) h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k ts č f v s z š ž m n l r j cj t d s z n l r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Central Vowels: (ɨ) ǝ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai oi ui ǝi æi ei øi yi au ou ǝu eu iu iæ yæ æy ey øy ua ǝa ia æu iy; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS) Ergative:; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1927: Language: Estonian; Location: Estonian; Population: 1 million; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic Dictionary: Silvet, J. 1970. Eesti-inglise sõnaraamat. Tallinn: Kirjastus Eesti Raamat. Silvet, J. 1956. Inglise-eesti sõnaraamat. Toronto: Eesti Kirjastus Orto. Grammar: Harms, Robert T. 1962. Estonian Grammar. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Ruan, Alo and Andrus Saareste. 1965. Introduction to Estonian Linguistics. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Kask, A.X. 1966. "Estonskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 35-60.; TextBooks: Oinas, Felix J. 1966. Basic Course in Estonian. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t tj k (f) s sj (š) h v m n nj l lj r Stops: p t tj k Fricatives: (f) v s sj (š) h Nasals: m n nj Laterals: l lj Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ (lonɡ) all c̄̄ (overlonɡ) all Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɤ Long Vowels: v̄ (lonɡ) all, v̄̄ (overlonɡ) all Diphthongs: diphthonɡs; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5 3 6 *Politeness: 2 intim & 2 pol [2 pol = 5]; Syntax: SVO [At an earlier period the basic word order was SOV] AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST

~~Number:~~ 1928: Language: Livonian Alternate Name: Liv; Location: Latvia; Population: 500; Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic Dictionary: Kettunen, Lauri. 1938. Livisches Wörterbuch. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Grammar: Vjaari, E.E. 1966. "Livskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 138-54.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ (f) s š v z ž m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but dz ɡ̌ w Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ ɵ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all but e o; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 1; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO AN NUM-N POSS-N Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST

Краткие типологические обзоры юкагирских языков

Языки юкагиро-чуванской группы ведут свою историю от праурало-юкагирского языка.

~~Number:~~ 1890: Language: Yukaghir; Location: NE Russia (Jakut ASSR); Population: 400; Classification: Uralic: Yukaghir Grammar: Krejnovich, E.A. 1958. Jukagirskij jazyk. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Krejnovich, E.A. 1968. "Jukagirskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 435-52.; Other Sources: AL 7:1. CTIL 1, 366.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ s h m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj t d n l Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e ø o a Front Vowels: i e ø Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ie uo; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: mostly initial or second; Noun
Number: s [p] [pl rarely used] Demonstratives: 4: this, that , yonder, that very far or invisible + REF: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N (N-POSS) D+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1891: Language: Chuvantsy; Location: NE Russia; Population: extinct; Classification: Uralic: Yukaghir; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1892: Language: Omok; Location: NE Russia; Population: extinct; Classification: Uralic: Yukaghir; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Алтайской семьи

Языки алтайской семьи ведут свою историю от праалтайского языка.

~~Number:~~ 1929: Language: Proto-Altaic; Location: Asia; Classification: Altaic; Other Sources: Tsintsius, V.I. 1975. "On the Pre-Altaic System of Consonants," in Researches in Altaic Languages, ed. by Louis Ligeti, 299-306.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh b d ɡ č čh ɡ̌ s m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: s Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɯ o Long Vowels: v̄ The existance of v̄ in Altaic is a matter of dispute.; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6 Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1930: Language: Proto-Turkic; Location: C Asia; Classification: Altaic: Turkic Grammar: Menges, Karl H. 1968. The Turkic Languages and Peoples. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ s̪ š z̪ ɣ m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ lɯ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s̪ z̪ š ɣ Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ lɯ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɯ o; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: AN GN Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1931: Language: Old Turkic; Location: Mongolia; Population: (+)c.700 A.D.; Classification: Altaic: Turkic Grammar: Tekin, Talaﬂt. 1968. A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č s̪ š z̪ m n̪ ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: s̪ z̪ š Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y (e) ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: i y e ø u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun
~~Number:~~ [pl is usually not indicated, though pl suffixes exist and are sometimes used for humans] Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST Comments: Old Turkic (=Orkhon Turkic) was the official language of the second East Turkic Empire (c. 680-740 AD).

~~Number:~~ 1932: Language: Chuvash; Location: W Russia (Chuvash SSR); Population: 1.7 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Bolgar Dictionary: Ashmarin, N.I. 1928-50. Slovar' chuvashskogo jazyka. Kazan'. Egorov, V.G. 1972. Russko-chuvashkij slovar'. Cheboksary. Grammar: Krueger, John R. 1961. Chuvash Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Andreev, I.A. 1966. "Chuvashskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 43-65.; Other Sources: Krueger, John R. 1962. "Morphophonemic Change in Chuvash Verb Stems," in ASAL, 129-40.; Consonant system: p t k (b) (d) (ɡ) (ts) č (f) s š χ v (z) (ž) m n l r Stops: p (b) t (d) k (ɡ) Affricates: (ts) č Fricatives: (f) v s (z) š (ž) χ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj ? c̄ all Glides: j; Vowel system: i y ɯ u e ǝ ɤ (o) ɑ Front Vowels: i y e Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u ɯ (o) ɤ ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final (non-reduced) vowel; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 4+ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1933: Language: Khalaj; Location: C Iran; Population: 20,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern; Other Sources: Doerfer, Gerhard. 1971. Khalaj Materials. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. WALS; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ č (ɡ̌) (f) s š h v z (ž) m n̪ l ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: č (ɡ̌) Fricatives: (f) v s z š (ž) h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y œ æ Back Vowels: u ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ œ u ɔ only Diphthongs: diphthonɡs; Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1934: Language: Gagauz; Location: E Rumania; Population: 157,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern Dictionary: Gajdarzhi, G.A. et al. 1973. Gagauzsko-russko-moldavskij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija. Grammar: Pokrovskaja, L.A. 1964. Grammatika gagauzskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka. Pokrovskaja, L.A. 1966. "Gagauzskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 112-38.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ (t̪s) č ɡ̌ f s̪ š (x) h v z̪ (ž) m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š (ž) (x) h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: diphthonɡs; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5* *3* *6* *Politeness: a polite/plain distinction for 2 3 5 6; Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1935: Language: Turkish; Location: Turkey; Population: 40 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern Dictionary: Alderson, A.D. and Fahir Iz, eds. 1959. The Concise Oxford Turkish Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Grammar: Swift, Lloyd B. 1963. A Reference Grammar of Modern Turkish. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Lewis, G.L. 1967. Turkish Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.; TextBooks: Underhill, Robert. 1976. Turkish Grammar. Cambridge: MIT Press.; Consonant system: ph t̪h (ch) kh (ʔ) b d̪ (ɟ) ɡ čh ɡ̌ f s š h v z ž m n̪ l lɯ ɾ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ (ch) (ɟ) kh ɡ (ʔ) Affricates: čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š (ž) h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: usually final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5 *3 *6 Politeness: 2 pol&2 intim(5 = 2 pol); Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1936: Language: Crimean Turkish; Location: Uzbekistan; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern Grammar: Sevortjan, E.V. 1966. "Krymsko-tatarskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 234-59.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š x v z ž ʁ m n N l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ʁ Nasals: m n N Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3+ref Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1937: Language: Turkmen; Location: Turkmenistan; Population: 2 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern Dictionary: Baskakov, N.A. and M.J. Xamzaev. 1956. Russko-turkmenskij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Azimov, P., D. Amansaryev and K. Saryev. 1966. "Turkmenskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 91-111. Baskakov, N.A., M.J. Xamzaev and B. Charyjarov, eds. 1970. Grammatika turkmenskogo jazyka. Ashxaban: Ylym.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ ɸ s š h β z ž m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: ɸ β s z š ž h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: ɨ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: i y ø æ ɨ u o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1938: Language: Turkmen Dialect: Chagatay; Location: Turkmenistan; Population: extinct; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern Grammar: GD: Eckmann, János. 1966. Chagatay Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s̪ š χ h v z̪ ž ʁ m n̪ N l̪ lɯ r̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n̪ N Laterals: l̪ lɯ Vibrants: r̪ r; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST

~~Number:~~ 1939: Language: Azerbaijani Alternate Name: Azari; Location: Azerbaijan; Population: 7 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern Dictionary: Dzhafarov, S. 1959. Leksika sovremenogo azerbajdzhanskogo jazyka, Baku. Grammar: Gadzhieva, N.Z. 1966. "Azerbajdzhanskij jazyk," JNS 2, 66-90. Shiraliev, M.S. and E.V. Sevortjan, eds. 1971. Grammatika azerbajdzhanskogo jazyka. Baku: Elm.; TextBooks: Householder, Fred W. 1965. Basic Course in Azerbaijani. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Other Sources: Alekperov, A.K. 1971. Fonematicheskaja sistema sovremennogo azerbajdzhanskogo jazyka. Baku: Elm.; Consonant system: p t c k b d ɟ ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) s š χ h v z ž ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: (v̄); Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef?; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1940: Language: Qashqay; Location: SW Iran (Fars); Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1941: Language: Uighur Alternate Name: Uyghur; Location: W China (Sinkiang); Population: 4 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Eastern Dictionary: Jarring, G. 1964. An Eastern Turki-English Dictionary. Lund. Nadzhip, E.N. 1968. Ujgursko-russkij slovar. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija. Grammar: Kaidarov, A.T. 1966. "Ujgurskij (novoujgskij) jazyk," in JNS 2, 363-86.; Other Sources: Sadvakasov, G. 1970, 1976. Jazyk ujgurov ferganskoj doliny, 2 vols. Alma-Ata: Nauka. WALS; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ ts č ɡ̌ f s ̪ š χ h v z̪ ž ʁ m n N l̪ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: ts č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n N Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5 *3 *6 *Politeness: + 2 pol; Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST Comments: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1942: Language: Uzbek; Location: Uzbekistan; Population: 10 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Eastern Dictionary: Waterson, Natalie. 1980. Uzbek-English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford Univ Press. Russko-uzbekskij slovar'. 1954. Moscow. Uzbeksko-russkij slovar'. 1959. Moscow. Grammar: Sjöberg, A. F. 1963. Uzbek Structural Grammar. The Hague. Kononov, A.N. 1960. Grammatika sovremennogo uzbekskogo literaturnovo jazyka. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences. Reshetov, V.V. 1966. "Uzbekskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 340-62.; TextBooks: Raun, Alo. 1969. Basic Course in Uzbek. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Other Sources: Wurm, Stefan. 1947. "The Uzbek Dialect of Qı̈zı̈l Qujaš ," BSOAS 12, 86-105. Sjoberg, Andree F. 1962. "The Phonology of Standard Uzbek," in ASAL, 237-61.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q b d̪ ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ ɸ s š χ h z (ž) ʁ m n̪ ŋ l̪ ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: ɸ s z š (ž) χ ʁ h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɒ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1943: Language: Salar Alternate Name: Yellow Uighur; Location: WC China (Qinghai); Population: 39,000(35,000); Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Eastern Dictionary: GD: Tenishev, E.R. 1976. Stroj salarskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh q qh (č̣) (č̣h) č čh f s sh (ṣ̌) š x χ h v m n ŋ l lɯ r Stops: p ph t th k kh q qh Affricates: (č̣) (č̣h) č čh Fricatives: f v s sh (ṣ̌) š x χ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l lɯ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: (v̄); Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: VH; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1944: Language: Bashkir; Location: EC Russia (Bashkir ASSR); Population: 1.3 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western Dictionary: Bashkirsko-russkij slovar'. 1958. Moscow. Karimova. G.R. 1954. Russko-bashkirskij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Poppe, Nicholas. 1964. Bashkir Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Juldashev, A.A. 1966. " Bashkirskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 173-93.; Consonant system: ph th kh qh (ʔ) b d ɡ (ts) (č) (f) θ s š x h (v) ð z (ž) ʁ m n ŋ l r Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ qh (ʔ) Affricates: (ts) (č) Fricatives: (f) (v) θ ð s z š (ž) x ʁ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ Back Vowels: ʋ o ɤ ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2+ref Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1945: Language: Karachay; Location: SW Russia (Kirghiz SSR); Population: 173,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western Grammar: Xabichev, M.A. 1966. "Karachaevo-balkarskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 213-33.; Other Sources: Hebert, Raymond J. 1962. "Karačay phonology,'' in ASAL, 97-113. Aliev, U.B. 1972. Sintaksis karachaevo-balkarskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ (f) s š x χ h (v) z ž ʁ m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž x χ ʁ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1946: Language: Karaim Dialect: Trakaj; Location: Lithuania; Population: 600 (400); Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western Grammar: Musaev, K.M. 1964. Grammatika karaimskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka. Musaev, K.M. 1966. "Karaimskij jazyka," in JNS 2, 260-79.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ ̆̆(f) s s̄ χ h (v) z (ž) ʁ m n N l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) (v) s z s̄ (ž) χ ʁ h Nasals: m n N Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2+ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SVO/SOV AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST Comments: The Karaim....are by religion (though not ethnically) Jews, a unique survival of the adoption of Judaism as the official religion of the Khazar Empire. LSU, 47.

~~Number:~~ 1947: Language: Karaim Dialect: Galits; Location: S Ukraine; Population: 600 (200); Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western Dictionary: Baskakov, N.A., A. Zajonchkovskij and C.M. Shapshal, eds. 1974. Karaimsko-russko-pol'skij slovar'. Moscow: Russkij Jazyk.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts dz (f) s (š) χ h (v) z ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: (f) (v) s z (š) χ ʁ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2+ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1948: Language: Kumyk; Location: SW Russia (Daghestan ASSR); Population: 186,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western Grammar: Magomedov, A.G. 1966. "Kumykskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 194-212.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q b d̪ ɡ (t̪s) č (ɡ̌) f s̪ š x h v z̪ ž ɣ m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q Affricates: (t̪s) č (ɡ̌) Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: (ǝ) Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1949: Language: Tatar Dialect: Central; Location: WC Russia (Tatar ASSR); Population: 6 million(1.5 million); Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western Dictionary: Russko-tatarskij slovar'. 1955-58. Kazan'. Tatarsko-russkij slovar'. 1966. Moscow: Sovetsskaja Entsilopedija. Grammar: DG: Poppe, Nicholas. 1963. Tatar Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Zakiev, M.Z. 1966. "Tatarskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 139-54.; Consonant system: p t k (q) ʔ b d ɡ (G) (ts) č ɡ̌ f s š x h (v) z ž m n N l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ (q) (G) ʔ Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f (v) s z š ž x h Nasals: m n N Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u o ɤ ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1950: Language: Baraba; Location: SC Russia (SW Siberia); Population: 5 million (8,000); Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western Grammar: Dmitrieva, L.V. 1966. "Jazyk barabinskix tatar," in JNS 2, 155-72.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ G ts (f) s š χ (h) (v) (z) (ž) m n N l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q G Affricates: ts Fricatives: (f) (v) s (z) š (ž) χ (h) Nasals: m n N Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1951: Language: Crimean Tatar Alternate Name: Crimean Turkish; Location: Uzbekistan; Population: 460,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1952: Language: Nogai Alternate Name: Noghay; Location: SW Russia (N Caucasus); Population: 52,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Central Dictionary: Baskakov, N.A. ed. 1956. Russko-nogajskij slovar'. Moscow. Baskakov, N.A. ed. 1962. Nogajsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Baskakov, N.A. 1966. "Nogajskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 280-300. Baskakov, N.A. ed. 1973. Grammatika nogajskogo jazyka. Cherkessk.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q b d̪ (t̪s) (č) (f) s̪ š x (v) z̪ ž ɣ ʁ m n̪ N l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k q Affricates: (t̪s) (č) Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ ʁ Nasals: m n̪ N Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø (æ) Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1953: Language: Karakalpak; Location: Uzbekistan; Population: 230,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Central Dictionary: Baskakov, N.A. ed. 1947. Russko-karakalpakskij slovar'. Moscow. Baskakov, N.A. ed. 1958. Karakalpaksko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: GD: Baskakov, N.A. 1951, 1952. Karakalpakskij jazyk, 2 vols. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Baskakov, N.A. 1966. "Karakalpakskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 301-19.; Other Sources: Wurm, S. 1951. "The Karakalpak Language," Anthropos 46.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ (ts) (č) (f) s š χ h (v) z ž ʁ m n N l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: (ts) (č) Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n N Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2+ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5 *3 *6 *Politeness: +2 pol; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1954: Language: Kazakh; Location: Kazakhstan; Population: 5 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Central Dictionary: Musabaev, G.G. and X.X. Maxmudov. 1954. Kazaxsko-russkij slovar'. Alma-Ata. Grammar: Sovremennyj kazaxskij jazyk. 1962. Alma-Ata. Kenesbaev, S.K. and N.B. Karasheva. 1966. "Kazaxskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 320-39.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q b d̪ ɡ (ts) (č) (f) s̪ š χ h (v) z̪ ž ʁ m n N l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q Affricates: (ts) (č) Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n N Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5* *3 *6 *Politeness: +2 pol, 5 pol; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1955: Language: Kirghiz; Location: Kyrgyzstan; Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Central Dictionary: Jadaxin, K.K 1965. Kirgizsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. DG: Hebert, Raymond J. and Nicholas Poppe. 1963. Kirghiz Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Grammar: Junusaliev, B.M. 1966. "Kirgizskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 482-505. Wurm, Stefan. 1949. "The (Rara-) Kirghiz Language," BSOAS 13, 97-120.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ ts č ɡ̌ (f) s š (x) β z (ž) ʁ m n N l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: ts č ɡ̌ Fricatives: β (f) s z š (ž) (x) ʁ Nasals: m n N Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 4 [this visible/that visible/ this invisible/ that invisible]+ref Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5* *3 *6 *Politeness: 2&5 each shows a polite/familiar distinction; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1956: Language: Yakut; Location: NE Russia (Yakut ASSR); Population: 285,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Yakut Dictionary: Afanatsev, P.S. and L.N. Xaritonov, eds. 1968. Russko-jakutskij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija. Sleptsov, P.A., ed. 1972. Jakutsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija. Grammar: Krueger, John R. 1962. Yakut Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Ubrjatova, E.I. 1966. "Jakutskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 403-27.; Other Sources: WPF; Consonant system: (ph) th kh b d ɡ čh ɡ̌ s (š) χ (h) ʁ m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: (ph) b th d kh ɡ Affricates: čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: s (š) χ ʁ (h) Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but b d ɡ ʁ r j j̃ Glides: j ȷ̃; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ Back Vowels: u ɯ ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ɯɑ ie uo yø; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1957: Language: Dolgan; Location: NE Russia (Yakut ASSR); Population: 5,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Yakut; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1958: Language: Khakas; Location: SC Russia (Khakas A.O.); Population: 56,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai Dictionary: Chankova, D.I., ed. 1961. Russko-xakasskij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Karpov, V.G. 1966. "Xakasskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 428-45.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b d̪ ɡ (t̪s) č ɡ̌ (f) s̪ (š) χ (v) z̪ (ž) ʁ m n̪ N l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ (š) (ž) χ ʁ Nasals: m n̪ N Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y I e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all but I; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1959: Language: Altai; Location: SC Russia (Altai Krai); Population: 50,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai Dictionary: Baskakov, N.A., ed. 1964. Russko-altajskij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija. Baskakov, N.A. and T.M. Toshchakova. 1947. Ojrotsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Baskakov, N.A. 1958. Altajskij jazyk. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Baskakov, N.A. 1966. "Altajskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 506-22.; Other Sources: Simpson, C.G. 1955. Some Features of the Morphology of the Oirot (Gorno-Altai) Language. London: Central Asian Research Centre.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ (t̪s) č ɡ̌ (f) s š (x) (v) z ž ʁ m n ŋ l ʎ r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž (x) ʁ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1960: Language: Northern Altai Dialect: Kumandy; Location: SC Russia; Population: 16,000 (7,000); Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai Grammar: Baskakov, N.A. 1972. Dialekt kumandintsev (Kumandy-Kizhi) Moscow: Nauka.; Consonant system: p t k ɡ č s š m n ŋ l r Stops: p t k ɡ Affricates: č Fricatives: s š Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1961: Language: Chulym; Location: SC Russia (Chulym River); Population: 48,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai Dictionary: Dul'zon, A.P. 1966. "Chulymsko-tjurkskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 446-66.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ ts dz β s z š ž ç x ɣ m m̥ n ŋ l l̥ lɯ l̥ɯ r r̥ Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: β s z š ž ç x ɣ Nasals: m m̥ n ŋ Laterals: l l̥ lɯ l̥ɯ Vibrants: r r̥ Modified Consonants: cj Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Y e ø ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ ɵ a Back Vowels: u ʋ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ ɵ ʋ Diphthongs: ɑj aj oj uj ɨj ʋj ɛj ou ua uɑ uʋ ye ie Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1962: Language: Shor; Location: SC Russia (Khakas A.O.); Population: 15,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai Grammar: Babushkin, G.F. and G.I. Donidze. 1966. "Shorskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 467-81.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q G (t̪s) č ɡ̌ (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž (x) m n̪ ŋ l̪̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q G Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž (x) Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 4 [this/that there/that present/that absent]; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1963: Language: Tuva Alternate Name: Tuvan; Location: SC Russia (Tuva ASSR); Population: 137,000; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai Dictionary: Pal'mbax, A.A., ed. 1953. Russko-tuvinskij slovar'. Moscow. Pal'mbax, A.A., ed. 1955. Tuvinsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: GD: Krueger, John R. 1977. Tuvan Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Sat, S.C. 1966. "Tuvinskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 387-402. Isxakov, F.G. and A.A. Pal'mbax. 1961. Grammatika tuvinskogo jazyka.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ k (Russian sources also give ph and th) (ts) č (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž ɣ χ ʁ (h) m n̪ ŋ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k (Russian sources also give ph and th) Affricates: (ts) č Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž ɣ χ ʁ (h) Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ Back Vowels: u ɯ ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: (ṽ) Modified Vowels: v̰(pharynɡealized) all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1964: Language: Karagas Alternate Name: Tofa; Location: Russia; Population: 560; Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai Dictionary: Rassadin, V.I. 1971. Fonetika i leksika tofalarskogo jazyka. Ulan-Ude: Burjatskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ q G ʔ č ɡ̌ v s z š ž ɣ ʁ h m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q G ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s z š ž ɣ ʁ h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ Back Vowels: u ɯ ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all Modified Vowels: v̰ (pharynɡealized) all Demonstratives: 3 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: AN GN Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1965: Language: Classical Mongolian; Location: Mongolia; Population: (+) c.1600 AD; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian Grammar: Poppe, Nicholas. 1964. Grammar of Written Mongolian. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Grønbech, Kaare and John R. Krueger. 1976. An Introduction to Classical (Literary) Mongolian. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; Consonant system: (p) b t d k ɡ q č ɡ̌ (v) s š ɣ (h) m n l r Stops: (p) b t d k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (v) s š ɣ (h) Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ʉ ɵ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p [pl not as comon as in other languages] Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1966: Language: Moghol Alternate Name: Moghol Dialect: Herat; Location: Afghanistan (Herat); Population: 50,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Western Grammar: Weiers, Michael. 1972. Die Sprache der Moghol der Provinz Herat in Afghanistan. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ q (ʔ) č ɡ̌ f s (z) š x ʁ (h) m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q (ʔ) Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s (z) š x ʁ (h) Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j (w); Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1967: Language: Dagur Alternate Name: Daur; Location: NE China; Population: 50,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Dagur; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1968: Language: Monguor Alternate Name: Mangghuer, Tu; Location: China (W Kansu); Population: 60,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Monguor Grammar: Smedt, A. de and A. Mostaert. 1945. Le dialecte monguor. Peking: The Catholic Univ. [Reprinted 1964 by Indiana Univ., Bloomington]; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh q ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh f s̪ ṣ ẓ š χ m n ŋ l r Stops: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh q Affricates: ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh Fricatives: f s̪ ṣ ẓ š χ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ɛ æ Central Vowels: ʉ ɵ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ Nasal Vowels: ṽ: æ a o Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1969: Language: Yellow Uighur Alternate Name: West Yugur; Location: China (NW Gansu); Population: 4,600; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Monguor; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1970: Language: Pao-an Alternate Name: Baonan Dialect: Tung-hsiang; Location: China (Kansu); Population: 250,000 (160,000); Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Monguor Grammar: Todaeva, B.X. 1961. Dunsjanskij jazyk. Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Vostochnoj literatury.; Consonant system: ph b th d ch ɟ ɡ qh čh ɡ̌ f (v) s (z) š x h m n ŋ l r Stops: ph b th d ch ɟ ɡ qh Affricates: čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f (v) s (z) š x h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1971: Language: Santa; Location: China (SW Gansu); Population: 374,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Monguor; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1972: Language: Oirat; Location: China; Population: 518,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Oirat-Kalmyk; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1973: Language: Kalmyk; Location: SW Russia (Kalmyk ASSR); Population: 253,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Oirat-Kalmyk Dictionary: Ramstedt, G.J. 1935. Kalmückisches Wörterbuch. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. Ilishkin, I., ed. 1964. Russko-kalmyyskij slovar'. Moscow Grammar: Todaeva, B.X. 1968. "Kalmytskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 34-52.; Other Sources: Street, John C. 1962. "Kalmyk Shwa," in ASAL, 263-91. Badmaev, B.B. 1966. Grammatika Kalmytskogo jazyka: morfologija. Elista: Kalmytskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo.; Consonant system: (p) b t d k ɡ ts č ɡ̌ β (f) s z š (ž) x ɣ m n ŋ l r Stops: (p) b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts č ɡ̌ Fricatives: β (f) s z š (ž) x ɣ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1974: Language: Buriat; Location: SE Russia (Buryat ASSR); Population: 350,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Khalkha-Buriat Dictionary: Cheremisov, K.M. 1973. Burjatsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija. Sanzheev, G.D. Grammatika burjatskogo jazyka'. Moscow: Izdatel'stvo vostochnoj literatury. Grammar: Bosson, James E. 1962. Buriat Reader. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Bertagaev, T.A. 1968. "Burjatskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 13-33.; Other Sources: Buraev, I.D., T.P. Bazheeva and E.S. Pavlova. 1975. Atlas zvukov burjatskogo jazyka. Ulan-Ude: Burjatskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo.; Consonant system: (p) b t d (k) ɡ (ts) (č) (f) (v) s z š ž x h m n ŋ l r Stops: (p) b t d (k) ɡ Affricates: (ts) (č) Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž x h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj ? Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I y ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: i y ø ɛ u ɔ ɑ Diphthongs: æɛ ɔɛ ʋI yi; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial, or on first long vowel; Noun
Number: s [p] Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1975: Language: Khalkha; Location: Mongolia; Population: 1 million; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Khalkha-Buriat Dictionary: Lessing, F.D. et al. 1960. Mongolian-English Dictionary. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Hangin, John G. 1970. A Concise English-Mongolian Dictionary. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Grammar: Street, John C. 1963. Khalkha Structure. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Bosson, James E. 1964. Modern Mongolian: A Primer and Reader. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Poppe, Nicholas. 1970. Mongolian Language Handbook. Washington, D.C.: CAL.; TextBooks: Hangin, John G. 1968. Basic Course in Mongolian. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: (ph) t̪h (kh) b d̪ ɡ tsh čh dz ɡ̌ (ɸ) s š x β m n̪ ŋ l̪ (ɬ) r Stops: (ph) b t̪h d̪ (kh) ɡ Affricates: tsh dz čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: (ɸ) β s š x Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ (ɬ) Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: i ʉ u e ǝ ɵ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ ɵ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄: all but ǝ Diphthongs: ae oe ʉi ia io iu ui; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p [pl used less than in Western languages] Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4[ie] 2 5 *3 *6 *Politeness: pol/fam (2) [2 pol=5]; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1976: Language: Khorchin; Location: China; Population: 900,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Khalkha-Buriat; Other Sources: Bosson, James and B. Unensečen. 1962. "Some Notes on the Dialect of the Khorchin Mongols," in ASAL, 23-44. E; Consonant system: ph b t̪h d̪ ɟ ɡ s̪ š h m n̪ ŋ l r Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ɟ ɡ Fricatives: s̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ø Central Vowels: ǝ ɵ Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɑ Long Vowels: i y e ø ǝ ɵ u o ɔ ɑ; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1977: Language: Ordos; Location: China (Sui Yang); Population: 375,000; Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Khalkha-Buriat Dictionary: Mostaert, Antoine 1941. Dictionnaire ordos. Peking: The Catholic Univ. [Reprinted 1968 by Johnson Reprinted, New York] Grammar: Soulié, G. 1903. Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss). Paris: Ernest Leroux.; Consonant system: p ph b t th k kh ɡ q G ts č čh kx f s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ m n ŋ l l̥ r r̥ Stops: p ph b t th k kh ɡ q G Affricates: ts č čh kx Fricatives: f s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l l̥ Vibrants: r r̥ Glides: j w w̥; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø œ æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN NUM-N POSS-N Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1978: Language: Even; Location: NE Russia (NE Yakut ASSR); Population: 9,000; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern Dictionary: Tsintsius, V.I. and L.D. Rishes. 1952. Russko-evenskij slovar'. Moscow. GD: Benzing, J. 1955. Lamutische Grammatik mit Bibliographie, Sprachproben und Glossar. Wiesbaden. Grammar: Novikova, K.A. 1960. Ocherki dialektov evenskogo jazyka. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Novikova K.A. 1968. "Evenskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 88-108. Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Das Lamutische," in Altaistik, vol 3, 92-129.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ s h v m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ t d k č n ŋ r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ i e u o Modified Vowels: ḭ æ̰ ḭ̄ ā̰ ǣ̰ a̤ ṳ o̤ ṳ̄ ō̤ (v̰ = 'hard' vowel: all vowels belong to either the hard or soft series. Compared to soft vowels, hard vowels: (1) are drawn back, (2) more tense, (3) have a lower timbre and in some dialects (4) are pharyngealized) Diphthongs: ie iæ; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: on last v̄, if no v̄, on last v; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1979: Language: Negidal; Location: SE Russia (Xabarovskij Krai); Population: 350; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern Grammar: Kolesnikova, V.D. and O.A. Konstantinova. 1968. "Negidal'skij jazyk," in JNS 5, 109-28.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) s x m n ñ ŋ l Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) s x Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ ɵ Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: i I e æ ɵ a u o ɔ; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1980: Language: Evenki Alternate Name: Khamnigan; Location: E Russia (Yakut ASSR); Population: 32,000; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern Dictionary: Vasilevich, G.M. 1958. Evenkijsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Kolesnikova, V.D. and O.A. Konstantinova. 1960. Russko-evenkijskij slovar'. Leningrad. Grammar: Konstantinova. O.A. 1968. "Evenkijskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 68-87. Konstantinova, O.A. 1964. Evenkijskij jazyk. Moscow. Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Das Ewenki," in Altaistik, vol 3, 42-92.; Other Sources: Kolesnikova, V.D. 1966. Sintaksis evenkijskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ β (f) s (z) (š) (ž) x m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: β (f) s (z) (š) (ž) x Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i æ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: i e æ ǝ u o; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1981: Language: Solon; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1982: Language: Manegir; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1983: Language: Orochon; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1984: Language: Ju-chen; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Population: extinct; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southwestern; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1985: Language: Manchu; Location: NW China (Sinkiang); Population: 27,000 (50); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southwestern Grammar: Pashkov, B.K. 1963. Manchzhurskij jazyk. Moscow: Izdatel'stvo vostochnoj literatury. Sinor, Denis. 1968. "La langue mandjoue," in Altaistik, vol 3, 257-80.; Other Sources: Austin, William M. 1962. "The Phonemics and Morphophonemics of Manchu," in ASAL, 15-22.; Consonant system: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh č čh f v s̪ (z̪) š (ž) x m n̪ ŋ l̪ r Stops: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh Affricates: č čh Fricatives: f v s̪ (z̪) š (ž) x Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɵ a Back Vowels: u o Diphthongs: aj oj ej uj; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p [pl suffix only used for humans, living things, kin terms, etc] Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1986: Language: Manchu Alternate Name: Xibe Dialect: Sibe; Location: China (Xinjiang); Population: 27,000 (27,000); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southwestern; Other Sources: Norman, Jerry. n.d. "Swadesh List in Manchu and Sibe," Unicorn 3, 89-98. Princeton: Chinese Linguistics Project. Norman, Jerry. 1974. "A Sketch of Sibe Morphology," Central Asiatic Journal 18, 159-74.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh q č čh qχ f v s (š) x χ m n ŋ N l ɾ Stops: p ph t th k kh q Affricates: č čh qχ Fricatives: f v s (š) x χ Nasals: m n ŋ N Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: ai au ia ua ǝi ǝu iɛ yɛ oi io ui Stress: penult; Noun
Number: s [p] [pl generally limited to humans] Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV GN DN NUM-N POSS-N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1987: Language: Akani; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1988: Language: Birar; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1989: Language: Gold; Location: SE Russia (Xabarovskij Krai); Population: 7,000; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj Dictionary: Onenko, S.N. 1959. Russko-nanajskij slovar'. Leningrad. Petrova, T.I. 1960. Nanajsko-russkij slovar'. Leningrad. Grammar: Avrorin, V.A. 1959, 1961. Grammatika nanajskogo jazyka, 2 vols. Moscow: Academy of Sciences. Avrorin, V.A. 1968. "Nanajskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 129-48. Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Die Sprache der Nānaj (Goldi)," in Altaistik, vol 3, 171-246.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ č ɡ̌ s x m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s x Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ḛ Central Vowels: ǝ a̰ Back Vowels: u o̰ Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all Diphthongs: iǝ iu ia io ǝu ǝi ai ao ui uǝ oi oa iǝ̃ iũ iã iõ ǝũ ǝĩ aĩ aõ uĩ uǝ̃ oĩ oã; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1990: Language: Kile; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1991: Language: Olcha; Location: SE Russia (Xabarovskij Krai); Population: 2,000; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj Grammar: Sunik, O.P. 1968. "Ul'chskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 149-71.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) v s x m n ñ ŋ l (r) Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s x Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: (r) Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: final; Noun
Number: s [p] [pl suffix exists, but is not usually used] Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1992: Language: Orok; Location: SE Russia (Saxalin Is.); Population: 400; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj Grammar: Petrova, T.I. 1967. Jazyk orokov (ul'ta). Leningrad: Nauka. Petrova, T.I. 1968. "Orokskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 172-90.; Other Sources: Ikegami, J. 1956. "The Substantive Inflection of Orok," Gengo Kenkyu 30.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ č ɡ̌ s x m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s x Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ t k m n l r w Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: i e ɛ ǝ a u o ɔ; Noun
Number: s [p] [pl suffix exists, but is seldom used] Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1993: Language: Samagir; Location: E Russia (E Siberia); Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1994: Language: Oroch; Location: SE Russia (Xabarovskij Krai); Population: 2,000; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Udihe Dictionary: Leontovich, S. 1896. Russko-orochenskij slovar'. Vladivostok. Grammar: Avrorin, V.A. and E.P. Lebedeva. 1968. "Orochskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 172-90.; Other Sources: Lopatin, I. 1957. Material on the Orochee Language. Fribourg.; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ č ɡ̌ v s x ɣ m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s x ɣ Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ p b k ɡ č m n ŋ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u ʋ o Long Vowels: i æ ǝ a u ʋ o Diphthongs: iǝ ia iu æi æa æʋ ǝi ǝu ai aʋ ui uǝ ʋi ʋa oi; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: final; Noun
Number: s [p] [pl forms used extremely rarely] Demonstratives: 4?: Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN/(NA) GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1995: Language: Udihe; Location: SE Russia (Xabarovskij Krai); Population: 1,400; Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Udihe Dictionary: Shnejder, E.R. 1936. Kratkij udegejsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Sunik, O.P. 1968. "Udegejskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 210-32. Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Die Sprache der Udihe," in Altaistik, vol 3, 129-71.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ č ɡ̌ f s x ɣ h m n̪ ñ ŋ l (ɾ) Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: (ɾ) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (y) e ø ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: final; Noun
Number: s [p] [pl suffix exists, but is not normally used] Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1996: Language: Korean; Location: Korea; Population: 55 million; Classification: Altaic: Korean-Japanese Grammar: Rogers, M.C. 1956. Outline of Korean Grammar. n.p.:n.p.; Other Sources: Olmsted, D.L. 1963. Korean Folkore Reader. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Han, Mieko S. 1963. Acoustic Phonetics of Korean. Los Angles: Univ. of California. Cho, Seung-Bog. 1967. A Phonological Study of Korean. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells. Hwang, Shin Ja Joo. 1975. Korean Clause Structure. SIL 50. AL 7:1 Martin, Samuel E. 1951. "Korean Phonemics," Lg 27, 519-33.; Consonant system: p ph pʔ t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ k kh kʔ ʔ č čh čʔ s sʔ h m n̪ ŋ l Stops: p ph pʔ t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ k kh kʔ ʔ Affricates: č čh čʔ Fricatives: s sʔ h Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (y) e ø æ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ Long Vowels: (v̄); Syllable: (C)V(C) Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6 politeness: yes; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N/(N-NUM) POSS-N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST Comments: The glottalized series of consonants is variously described as (1) long, (2) tense, (3) accompanied by glottal tension, though the glottal catch is apparently nowhere near as pronounced as in typical Amerindian or Caucasian ejectives.

~~Number:~~ 1997: Language: Japanese; Location: Japan; Population: 115 million; Classification: Altaic: Korean-Japanese Dictionary: Okakura, Y., ed. 1945. New English-Japenese Dictionary. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. Grammar: Martin, Samuel E. 1975. A Reference Grammar of Japanese. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.; TextBooks: Jorden, Eleanor Harz. 1963. Beginning Japanese, 2 vols. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.; Other Sources: Harada, Tetsuo. 1966. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tokyo: Nihon Univ. Kuno, Susumu. 1973. The Structure of the Japanese Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.; Consonant system: p t̪ k (ʔ) b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ s š h z m n̪ (ŋ) ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ (ʔ) Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z š h Nasals: m n̪ (ŋ) Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k č s š Glides: j w; Vowel system: i ɯ e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ɯ o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)(G)V, ŋ̟; Tones: pitch accent: hi lo Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6hH politeness: many honorific forms; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 1998: Language: Ryukyuan Dialect: Central; Location: Japan (Okinawa); Classification: Altaic: Korean-Japanese; Other Sources: AL 7:1; Consonant system: p b t d k ɡ ʔ ts s z h m n r Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts Fricatives: s z h Nasals: m n Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: Nˈ; Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 1999: Language: Ryukyuan Alternate Name: Shodon Dialect: Northern; Location: Japan (Ryukyu Islands); Population: 900,000; Classification: Altaic: Korean-Japanese; Other Sources: Martin, Samuel E. 1970. "Shodon: A Dialect of the Northern Ryukyus," JAOS 90, 97-139.; Consonant system: p t̪ t̪h k kh kʷ khʷ ʔ ʔʷ b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ ɸ s̪ h (z̪) m n̪ ɾ Stops: p b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ kʷ khʷ ɡʷ ʔ ʔʷ Fricatives: ɸ s̪ (z̪) h Nasals: m n̪ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Tones: hi mid low Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2* 5* 3 6 politeness: honorific forms for 2 & 5; Syntax: SOV AN Ergative:; Prep/Post:

Краткие типологические обзоры айнских диалектов

~~Number:~~ 2000: Language: Ainu Dialect: Hokkaido; Location: N Japan (Hokkaido); Population: 15; Classification: Eurasiatic Dictionary: Hattori, Shirô, ed. 1964. An Ainu Dialect Dictionary. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Grammar: Patrie, James. 1982. The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language. Honolulu: Univ Press of Hawaii.; Other Sources: Pilsudski, Bronislaw. 1912. Materials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore. Cracow: Academy of Sciences. Simeon, George. 1969. "Hokkaido Ainu Phonemics," JAOS 89, 751-7 Simeon, George. 1976. "The Hokkaido Ainu Copula," Linguistics 169, 63-6. Peng, Fred C.C. and Peter Geiser. 1977. The Ainu: The Past in the Present. Hiroshima: Bunda Hyoron. AL 7:1; Consonant system: p t k (ʔ) č s h m n ɾ Stops: p t k (ʔ) Affricates: č Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k s m n Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Modified Vowels: vowel harmony ? Diphthongs: wa wo we ja jo je aw ew uw iw aj oj ej uj jaj; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi lo (pitch accent) Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p (usually not used) Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6 politeness: 2 pol, 5 pol; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2001: Language: Ainu Dialect: Sakhalin; Location: SE Russia (Sakhalin Island); Population: 15 ((+)1994); Classification: Eurasiatic Dictionary: Hattori, Shirô, ed. 1964. An Ainu Dialect Dictionary. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.; Other Sources: Hattori, Shirô. 1967. "Personal Affixes in the Sakhalin Dialect of Ainu," Linguistics 29, 58-79.; Consonant system: p t k ʔ č s h m n r Stops: p t k ʔ Affricates: č Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: CV(C) Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6 Politeness: 2 pol & 5 pol; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

Краткий типологический обзор нивхского языка

Языки нивхского языка-изолята ведут свою историю от прагиляцкого языка.

~~Number:~~ 2002: Language: Gilyak Alternate Name: Nivx, Nivkh; Location: SE Russia (Sakhalin Island); Population: 2,800; Classification: Eurasiatic Dictionary: Saveleva, V.N. and C.M. Taksami. 1965. Russko-nivxskij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Panfilov, V.Z. 1962, 1965. Grammatika ivxskogo jazyka, 2 vols. Moscow. Panfilov, V.Z. 1968. "Nivxskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 408-34.; Other Sources: Jakobson, Roman. 1957. "Notes on Gilyak," in Studies Presented to Yuen Ren Chao on his Sixty-fifth Birthday, 255-81. AL 7:1; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh q qh b d ɡ G č čh ɡ̌ f s x χ h v z ɣ ʁ m n ñ ŋ l r ř(=rž) Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ q qh G Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ χ ʁ h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ř(=rž) Glides: j; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: (v̄); Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: free, but often initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 5: this, that, that further away, that absent, that way yonder; Pronouns: 1 4d 4ie 2* 5 3 6 Politeness: 2 fam & 2 respectful [2 respectful=5]; Syntax: SOV AN DN POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Чукче-камчатской семьи

~~Number:~~ 2003: Language: Chukchi; Location: NE Russia (Chukchi Peninsula); Population: 11,000; Classification: Chukchi-Kamchatkan: Northern Dictionary: Moll, T.A. and P.I. Inenlikej. 1957. Chukotsko-russkij slovar'. Leningrad. Grammar: Skorik, P.J. 1961. Grammatika chukotskogo jazyka, Part I. Moscow. Sokrik, P.J. 1968. "Chukotskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 248-70.; Other Sources: Bogoras, W. 1922. "Chukchee," in Handbook of American Indian Lanugages, ed. by Franz Boas, Washington. CTIL 1, 359.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ ts (used only by women) č ɣ m n ŋ l r Stops: p t k q ʔ Affricates: ts (used only by women) č Fricatives: ɣ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ t k q m n ŋ Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e ǝ o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ ?; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: penult & final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO(ERG)/SOV(NOM) AN GN DN NUM-N Ergative: ERG; Noun Incorporation: NOUN INCORP; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2004: Language: Kerek; Location: NE Russia (Cape Navarin); Population: 100; Classification: Chukchi-Kamchatkan: Northern: Koryak-Alyutor Grammar: Skorik, P.J. 1968. "Kerekskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 310-33.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ č̌ h (ɣ) m n ŋ l (r) Stops: p t k q ʔ Affricates: č Fricatives: (ɣ) h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: (r) Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ h Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u ǝ a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C); Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 2: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SVO(ERG)/SOV(NOM) AN Ergative: ERG; Noun Incorporation: NOUN INCORP; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2005: Language: Koryak; Location: E Russia (N Kamchatkan Peninsula); Population: 6,000; Classification: Chukchi-Kamchatkan: Northern: Koryak-Alyutor Dictionary: Korsakov, G.M. 1939. Nymykansko (korjaksko)-russkij slovar'. Moscow. Grammar: Zhukova, A.N. 1968. "Korjakskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 271-93. Zhukova, A.N. 1972. Grammatika korjakskogo jazyka. Leningrad: Nauka.; Other Sources: CTIL 1, 363.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ č̌ (f) v ɣ ʁ m n ŋ l Stops: p t k q ʔ Affricates: č Fricatives: (f) v ɣ ʁ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Modified Consonants: c̄ all but v j ʁ cj t n l Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e (ǝ) o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C), but no CCVCC Stress: tendency toward penult; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def indef: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N Ergative: ERG; Noun Incorporation: NOUN INCORP; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2006: Language: Alyutor; Location: E Russia (Kamchatkan Peninsula); Population: 1,000; Classification: Chukchi-Kamchatkan: Northern: Koryak-Alyutor Grammar: Zhukova, A.N. 1968. "Aljutorskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 294-309.; Other Sources: Mel'č̌uk, Igor A. and Elena N. Savvina. 1978. "Toward a Formal Model of Alutor Surface Syntax: Predicative and Completive Constructions," Linguistics, Special Issue, 5-39.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ č s v ɣ m n ñ ŋ l ʎ r Stops: p t k q ʔ Affricates: č Fricatives: v s ɣ Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u ǝ a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Stress: mostly second, sometimes initial; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 3: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SVO AN Ergative: ERG; Noun Incorporation: NOUN INCORP; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2007: Language: Kamchadal Alternate Name: Itelmen; Location: E Russia (W Kamchatkan Peninsula); Population: 400; Classification: Chukchi-Kamchatkan: Southern Dictionary: Worth, Dean S. 1969. Dictionary of Western Kamchadal. UCPL 59. Grammar: Volodin, A.P. and A.N. Zhukova. 1968. "Itel'menskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 334-51.; Other Sources: Worth, Dean Stoddard. 1961. Kamchadal Texts Collected by W. Jochelson. The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p pʔ t tʔ k kʔ q qʔ ʔ č čʔ f s x χ v z ɣ m n ñ ŋ l ɬ ʎ r Stops: p pʔ t tʔ k kʔ q qʔ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ χ Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ k č s z ɣ m n ñ l w Glides: j w w̥; Vowel system: i u e o a ɑ Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ ?; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: penult (sometimes antepenult); Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 (4d) 4 2 (5d) 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative: ERG; Noun Incorporation: NOUN INCORP; Prep/Post: /POST Comments: all bilingual in Russian

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Эскимо-алеутской семьи

~~Number:~~ 2008: Language: Aleut; Location: SW Alaska (Aleutian Islands); Population: 600; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Aleut Grammar: GD: Geoghegan, Richard Henry. 1944. The Aleut Language. Washington, D,C.: Dept of the Interior. Menovshchikov, G.A. 1968. "Aleutskij jazyk" in JNS 5, 386-406.; Consonant system: (p) t k q (b) s x χ h ð ɣ ʁ m n ŋ l ɬ r (in some dialects p > m, b > w) Stops: (p) (b) t k q (in some dialects p > m, b > w) Fricatives: ð s x ɣ χ ʁ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C); Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: >20, +e.g This, that near visible, that inside, that far visible, that invisible, that above, that outside, that far away, that underneath, that not far away, that going past, that invisible far in time or space, that above close, that lying nearby, that: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV NA GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative: ERG; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2009: Language: Proto-Eskimo; Location: Alaska; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo; Other Sources: Swadesh, Morris. 1952. "Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes," IJAL 18, 166-71.; Consonant system: p t k q v s ɣ ʁ m n ŋ l ɬ Stops: p t k q Fricatives: v s ɣ ʁ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 2010: Language: Alaskan Inuit; Location: Alaska; Population: 65,000; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Inuit; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 2011: Language: Canadian Inuit Dialect: Labrador Inuttut; Location: E Canada (Labrador); Population: 65,000; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Inuit Grammar: Spalding, A.E. 1969. Salliq: An Eskimo Grammar. Ottawa: Education Branch, Dept. of Indian Affairs.; TextBooks: Webster, Donald H. 1968. Let's Learn Eskimo. Fairbanks: SIL.; Other Sources: Smith, L.R. 1975. "Labrador Inuttut Surface Phonology," IJAL 41, 97-105.; Consonant system: p t k s χ (h) v ɣ m n ŋ l ɬ (ɹ̣) Stops: p t k Fricatives: v s ɣ χ (h) Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: (ɹ̣) Modified Consonants: c̄ all but v s ɣ Glides: j; Vowel system: I ʋ ɐ Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ā ū; Noun; Number: s d p; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV GN N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2012: Language: Greenlandic Dialect: West Greenlandic; Location: W Greenland; Population: 65,000; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Inuit; Other Sources: Mase, Hideo and Jørgen Rischel,1972. "A Study of Consonant Quantity in West Greenlandic," IJDL 1:2, 138-95. WALS; Consonant system: p t k q s š ɣ ʁ m n ŋ l Stops: p t k q Fricatives: s š ɣ ʁ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Modified Consonants: c̄ all but j Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai only; Syllable: CV(C); Syntax: SOV Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 2013: Language: Alutiiq Alternate Name: Pacific Gulf Yupik; Location: Alaska (Kodiak Island); Population: 2,000; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Alaskan; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 2014: Language: Central Yupik Dialect: Yuk; Location: W Alaska; Population: 14,500; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Alaskan; Other Sources: Miyaoka, Osahito. 1971. "On Syllable Modification and Quantity in Yuk," IJAL 37, 219-26. Swedish, Morris. 1951-2. "Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo I-III," IJAL 17, 66-70; 18, 25-34, & 69-76.; Consonant system: p t k q č f v š ž x ɣ χ ʁ m n ŋ l ɬ Stops: p t k q Affricates: č Fricatives: f v š ž x ɣ χ ʁ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: i a u; Noun; Number: s d p; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV NUM-N N-POSS Ergative:; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2015: Language: Sirenik; Location: NE Russia (Siberia); Population: 10; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Siberian; Consonant system: Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 2016: Language: Chaplino Dialect: St. Lawrence Island; Location: W Alaska (St. Lawrence Island); Population: 1,700; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Siberian; Other Sources: Krauss, Michael E. 1976. "Eskimo-Aleut," in NLA 1, 191.; Consonant system: p t k kʷ q qʷ f v s z x ɣ xʷ ɣʷ χ ʁ χʷ ʁʷ (h) m m̥ n n̥ ŋ ŋ̥ ŋʷ ŋ̥ʷ l ɬ r r̥ Stops: p t k kʷ q qʷ Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ xʷ ɣʷ χ ʁ χʷ ʁʷ (h) Nasals: m m̥ n n̥ ŋ ŋ̥ ŋʷ ŋ̥ʷ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r r̥ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: i a u Ergative:; Prep/Post:

~~Number:~~ 2017: Language: Chaplino Dialect: Siberian; Location: NE Russia (Siberia); Population: 1,700; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Siberian Grammar: Menovshchikov, G.A. 1954. Eskimossko-russkij slovar'. Leningrad. Menovshehikov, G.A. 1962,1967. Grammatika jazyka aziatskix eskimosov, 2 vols. Moscow. Menovshchikov, G.A. 1968. "Eskimosskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 366-85.; Consonant system: p t k q f v s z š x ɣ χ ʁ m n n̥ ŋ l ɬ r Stops: p t k q Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ χ ʁ Nasals: m n n̥ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄; Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 20: see the St. Lawrence Island dialect.: Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3 6d 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative: ERG; Prep/Post: /POST

~~Number:~~ 2018: Language: Naukan; Location: NE Russia (Siberia); Population: 1,700; Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Siberian Grammar: GD: Menovshchikov, G.A. 1975. Jazyk naukanskix eskimosov. Leningrad: Nauka.; Consonant system: p t k q v s x ɣ χ m n ŋ l ɬ r Stops: p t k q Fricatives: v s x ɣ χ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: ʋi au ei iu eu ea ...; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun
Number: s d p Demonstratives: 20: (1) this close, (2) that in front, (3) this nearby, (4) that in the water, (5) that behind above, (6) that below, (7) that above, (8) that invisible, (9) that outside, (10) that outside close by, (11) that inside, (12) that invisible far away, (13) that behind not far, (14) that unknown, (15) that way above, (16) that on the mountain, (17) that far away, (18) that going past, (19) that drawing near, (20) that to the side: Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Ergative: ERG; Prep/Post: /POST Comments: Spoken in Siberia and on St. Lawrence Island, this the only language native to bother hemispheres. The Russian and American groups have, however, been isolated from each other since the inception of the Cold War in 1947.

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Дравидической семьи

~~Number:~~ 2020: Language: Proto-Dravidian; Location: India; Classification: Dravidian; Other Sources: Emeneau, M. B. 1970. Dravidian Comparative Phonology: A Sketch. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ. Pfeiffer, Martin. 1972. Elements of Kurux Historical Phonology. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Zvelebil, Kamil V. 1974. "Dravidian Languages," EB 5, 989-92.; Consonant system: p t̪ t ṭ k č v m n ṇ ñ l ḷ ɾ ɹ̣ Stops: p t̪ t ṭ k Affricates: č Fricatives: v Nasals: m n ṇ ñ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: ɾ ɹ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: sing: masc, non-masc; pl: hum, non-hum; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2021: Language: Brahui; Location: SW Pakistan (N Baluchistan); Population: 300,000; Classification: Dravidian: Northwest; Other Sources: Emeneau, M. B. 1962. Brahui and Dravidian Comparative Grammar. UCPL 27. De Armond, Richard C. 1971. "The Grammatical Morphemes of the Brahui Verb," IL 32, 91-106. De Armond, Richard C. 1975. "Some Rules of Brahui Conjugation," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 242-98.; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k ʔ b d̪ ḍ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž ɣ m n l ḷ r ɾ̣ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄; Vowel system: i u a Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ō ū; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2022: Language: Kurux; Location: EC India (E Madhya Pradesh); Population: 1.1 million; Classification: Dravidian: Northeast Grammar: Hahn, F. 1911. Kurukh Grammar. Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Press.; Other Sources: Pfeiffer, Martin. 1972. Elements of Kurux Historical Phonology. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Gordon, Kent H. and Kenneth L Pike. 1973. "Paired Semantic Components," in PCSD I, 313-43. Gorden, Kent H. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Dhangar-Kurux," in PCSD II, 37-121.; Consonant system: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ ʔ č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ s x h m n (ṇ) ŋ l r ṛ (ṛ̤) Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ ʔ Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌ Fricatives: s x h Nasals: m n (ṇ) ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ṛ (ṛ̤) Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all but ǝ v̄̃ all but ǝ Diphthongs: ai au; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc non-masc (fem gender=neuter in the sing, = masc in the plural) (N=fem+neut) Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mM *6hN m=masc M=non-masc h=human N=non-human; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N Num+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2023: Language: Malto; Location: NE India (NE Bihar); Population: 90,000; Classification: Dravidian: Northeast Grammar: Das, A. Sisir Kumar. 1973. Structure of Malto. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.; Other Sources: Mahapatra, Bijay P. 1973. "Malto Object Classifiers," IL 34, 191-9.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ c j k ɡ q G θ s̪ h m n̪ N l r ɾ̣ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ c ɟ k ɡ q G Fricatives: θ s̪ h Nasals: m n̪ N Laterals: l Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t ḍ c ɟ k q s ɾ̣ n l j Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic (on v̄); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc non-masc (= f+n) Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mM *6mM m=masc M=non-masc; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+NUM+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2024: Language: Kolami; Location: C India (N Andhra Pradesh); Population: 50,000; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji Grammar: GD: Emeneau, M. B. 1955. Kolami, A Dravidian Language. UCPL 12.; Other Sources: McNair, Norman and Helen McNair. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Kolami," in PCSD II, 123-90. AL 8:4; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ (ts) č ɡ̌ v s z (h) m n̪ ŋ l (ḷ) r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s z (h) Nasals: m n̪ ŋ Laterals: l (ḷ) Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but z ŋ j Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)C(N)(C)(C)(C) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc non-masc Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mM *6mM [M=non-masc = f+n]; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2025: Language: Naiki; Location: C India (NE Maharashtra); Population: 1,500; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2026: Language: Parji; Location: EC India (SE Madhya Pradesh); Population: 25,000; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji Grammar: GD: Burrow, T. and S. Bhattacharya. 1953. The Parji Language. Hertford: Stephen Austin & Sons.; Other Sources: Shanmugam, R. 1969. "Phonology and Noun Morphology of Parji," in Dravidian Linguistics: Seminar Papers, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and N. Kumaraswami, 177-86. Khrishnamurti, B. 1978. "On Diachronic and Synchronic Rules in Phonology," IL 39, 252-76. AL 8:4; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ v (s) (h) m n̪ ñ ŋ l r ɾ̣ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v (s) (h) Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but b t s h ɾ̣ j Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ Nasal Vowels: (ṽ) (v̄̃); Syllable: (C)V(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc non-masc [=f+n] Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mM *6mM M=non-masc = f+n; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2027: Language: Gadaba Dialect: Ollari; Location: EC India (S Orissa); Population: 8,800; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji Grammar: Bhattacharya, Sudhibhushan. 1957. Ollari: A Dravidian Speech. Delhi: Government of India.; Other Sources: AL 8:4; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ (ts) (dz) č ɡ̌ v s z m n̪ ṇ (ñ) ŋ l r ɾ̣ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: (ts) (dz) č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s z Nasals: m n̪ ṇ (ñ) ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: (ṽ); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc non-masc Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mM 6mM M=non-masc; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2028: Language: Gondi; Location: C India (SE Madhya Pradesh); Population: 1.5 million; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Gondi-Koya Grammar: GD: Subrahmanyam P. S. 1968. A Descriptive Grammar of Gondi. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.; Other Sources: Pandurangachar. 1975. "Pronouns in Gondi," IL 36, 203-11.; Consonant system: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h (t̪ʔ) ṭ ṭh ḍ d̪̤ k kh k (k̪̪̪ʔ) ɡ ɡ̤ ts tsh dz dz̤ β s h m n ṇ ŋ l ɾ Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h (t̪ʔ) ṭ ṭh ḍ d̪̤ k kh k (k̪ʔ) ɡ ɡ̤ Affricates: ts tsh dz d̤z Fricatives: β s h Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but s ŋ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc non-masc Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mM *6mM [M=non-masc]; Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2029: Language: Koya; Location: C India (Andhra Pradesh); Population: 170,000; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Gondi-Koya Grammar: Tyler, Stephen A. 1969. Koya: An Outline Grammar. UCPL 54.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ β s ɦ m n ṇ l ɾ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: β s ɦ Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ɦ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic (on long syllables); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc, non-masc [= f+n] Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mM *6mM M=non-masc = f+n; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2030: Language: Konda; Location: EC India (S Orissa); Population: 13,000; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Konda-Kui; Other Sources: AL 8:4; Consonant system: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ ts dz v s z m n ṇ ŋ l r̪ r ṛ Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: v s z Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r̪ r ṛ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ı̃̄ ȭ; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2031: Language: Manda; Location: EC India (Orissa); Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Konda-Kui; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2032: Language: Pengo; Location: EC India (S Orissa); Population: 1,300; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Konda-Kui Grammar: GD: Burrow, T. and S. Bhattacharya. 1970. The Pengo Language. Oxford. Clarendon Press.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ t̪s d̪z s̪ z̪ h m n̪ ṇ ŋ l̪ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: t̪s d̪z Fricatives: s̪ z̪ h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ "Long consonants are common in Pengo, but they always result from the combination of roots and affixes." p. 18 Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST Comments: All Bilingual in Oriya.

~~Number:~~ 2033: Language: Kui; Location: EC India (NW Orissa); Population: 510,000; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Konda-Kui Dictionary: Winfield, W. W. 1929. A Vocabulary of the Kui Language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. Grammar: Winfield, W. W. 1928. A Grammar of the Kui Language. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press.; Other Sources: Watkin, K. L. 1975. "Some Phonological Rules for the Kui Verb," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 375-89.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ ɡ̌ β s ṣ h m n ṇ l ḷ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: ɡ̌ Fricatives: β s ṣ h Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ṛ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: masc, non-masc [=f+n] Demonstratives: 4 (3 + that over there) Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mM *6mM M=non-masc; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2034: Language: Kuvi; Location: EC India (S Orissa); Population: 190,000; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Konda-Kui; Other Sources: Ramakrishna Reddy, B., Susheela P. Upadhyaya and Joy Reddy. 1974. Kuvi Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ ts dz v s h m n ṇ ŋ l ɾ ɾ̣ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: v s h Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2035: Language: Telugu; Location: SC India (Andhra Pradesh); Population: 50 million; Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Telugu Grammar: DG: Polkam, D. B. 1971. Merolu Telugu. Poona: Deccan College.; TextBooks: Lisker, Leigh. 1963. Introduction to Spoken Telugu. Poona: Deccan College. Krishnamurti, B. and P. Sivananda Sarma. 1968. A Basic Course in Modern Telugu. Hyderabad. Subrahmanyam, P. S. 1974. An Introduction to Modern Telugu. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.; Other Sources: Kelley, Gerald. 1958. "Telugu Vowel Phonemes," IL 18, 146-58. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju. 1961. Telugu Verbal Bases. UCPL 24. Murti, K. V. S. 1972. "Telugu Syntax: A Brief Description," Linguistics 81, 49-82. Venkateswara Sastry, J. 1972. Telugu Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. AL 8:4; Consonant system: p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ d̪ (d̤̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤) č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌) (f) v s ṣ š h m n̪ ṇ l ḷ ɾ Stops: p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ d̪ (d̤̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤) Affricates: č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌) Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ š h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au ao ia; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6hH h=m+f H=non-hum; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N

~~Number:~~ 2036: Language: Savara; Location: S India (Andhra Pradesh); Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Telugu; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2037: Language: Tulu; Location: SW India (W Mysore); Population: 1 million; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tulu Dictionary: Mariappa Bhat, M. and A. Shanker Kedilaya. 1967. Tulu-English Dictionary. Madras: Univ of Madras. Grammar: Bhat, D. N. Shankara. 1967. Descriptive Analysis of Tulu. Poona: Deccan College.; Other Sources: Ayyer, L. V. Ramaswami. 1932. "Tulu Prose Texts in Two Dialects," BSOAS 6, 897-931. Aiyar, L. V. Ramaswamy. 1936. "Materials for a Sketch of Tulu Phonology," IL 6, 84-127. Kölver, Bernhard. 1969. Tulu Texts. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner. Bhatt, Sooda Lakshminarayana. 1975. "Inflection in the Tulu Noun," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol E. Eastman, 180-96. AL 8:4; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ v s̪ ṣ š h m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l̪ ḷ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s̪ ṣ š h Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ ḷ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ṣ š h ñ ŋ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɯ o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ɯ Nasal Vowels: ã Diphthongs: ai; Syllable: (C)CV(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: sing: m f; pl: hum, non-hum Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6hH h=hum=m+f H=non-hum politeness: 2 honorific & 3 honorific; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2038: Language: Bellari; Location: SW India (Maharashtra); Classification: Dravidian: South: Tulu; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2039: Language: Koraga; Location: SW India (Mysore); Population: 1,000; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tulu Dictionary: Bhat, D. N. S. 1971. The Koraga Language. Poona: Deccan College.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ v s m n ŋ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ŋ v s Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɯ o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ɯ; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: hum., non-hum Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2040: Language: Kannada; Location: SW India (Mysore); Population: 25 million; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Kannada Dictionary: Kittel, Ferdinand. 1894. Kannada-English Dictionary, 4 vols. Mangalore: Basel Massion Book and Tract Depository. [Reprinted 1968 by the Univ of Madras] Grammar: Bright, William. 1958. An Outline of Colloquial Kannada. Poona: Deccan College. Jensen, Hans. 1969. Grammatik der kanaresischen Schriftsprache. Leizig: VEB Verlag. Hiremath, R. C. 1961. THe Structure fo Kannada. Dharwar: Karnatak Univ. GD: Bhat, D. N. Shankara. 1971. An Outline Grammar of Havyaka. Poona. Deccan College.; TextBooks: McCormack, William. 1966. Kannada. Madison: Univ of Wisconsin Press.; Other Sources: Nayak, H. M. 1967. Kannada: Literary and Colloquial. Mysore: Rao & Raghavan. Upadhyaya, U. P. 1972. Kannada Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. Chisum, Gary L. 1975. "Systematic Phonology of the Kannada Noun," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M.Eastman, 197-205. AL 8:4; Consonant system: p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ (t̪h) d̪ (d̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤) Aspirated stops are found in literary, but not colloquial Kannada. č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌) (f) v s ṣ š h m n ṇ ŋ l ḷ ɾ Stops: p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ (t̪h) d̪ (d̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤) Aspirated stops are found in literary, but not colloquial Kannada. Affricates: č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌) Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ š h Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e (æ) Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mfn *6hH h=hum=m+f H=non-hum; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2041: Language: Badaga; Location: India (Tamil Nadu); Population: 125,000; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Kannada; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2042: Language: Kodagu; Location: SW India (S Mysore); Population: 80,000; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu; Other Sources: Kothandaraman, P. 1969. "Kodagu Vowels," in Dravidian Linguistics: Seminar Papers, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and N. Kumaraswami, 233-47. Emeneau, M. B. 1970. "Kodagu Vowels," JAOS 90, 145-58. Garman, Michael. 1975. "Coorg Verbal Base Structure" in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 322-74. AL 8:4; Consonant system: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ v s h m n ṇ ñ ŋ l ḷ r Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s h Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ã ũ; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2043: Language: Kurumba; Location: SW India (Mysore); Population: 9,000; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu; Other Sources: Upadhyaya, U. P. 1972. "Kuruba - A Dravidian Language," in Third Seminar on Dravidian Linguistics, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and S. V. Shanmugam, 307-28.; Consonant system: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ v m n ṇ ŋ l ḷ r Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all; Noun; Number: s p; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2044: Language: Toda; Location: S India (W Tamil Nadu); Population: 1,000; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu Grammar: Emeneau, Murray B. 1983. Toda Grammar and Texts. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.; Other Sources: Emeneau, M. B. 1957. "Toda, a Dravidian Language," Transactions of the Philological Society, 15-66. Agesthialingom, S. and S. Sakthivel. 1972. "Toda Nouns," IL 33, 153-7. AL 8:4 WPF; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ ts dz č ɡ̌ f θ s̪ z̪ s z ṣ ẓ š ž x m n ṇ (ŋ) l ɬ ḷ ɬ̣ ɾ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f θ s̪ z̪ s z ṣ ẓ š ž x Nasals: m n ṇ (ŋ) Laterals: l ɬ ḷ ɬ̣ Vibrants: ɾ r ṛ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y e ø Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ɯ o Long Vowels: ī ȳ ǣ ↔ō ā ū ɯ̄ ō; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2045: Language: Kota; Location: S India (W Tamil Nadu); Population: 900; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu; Other Sources: Emeneau, M. B. 1944-46. Kota Texts, 4 vols. UCPL 2-3. Eastman, Carol M. 1975. "Morphophonemics of the Positive and Negative Stems of the Kota Verb," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 299-321. AL 8:4; Consonant system: ph b t̪h d̪ th d ṭh ḍ kh ɡ č ɡ̌ v ṣ m n ṇ ŋ l ḷ r ɾ̣ Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ th d ṭh ḍ kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v ṣ Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p (pl not obligatory) Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2046: Language: Irula; Location: S India (S Mysore); Population: 4,000; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu Grammar: Zvelebil, Kamil V. 1973. The Irula Language. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ t d k ɡ č ɡ̌ v m n̪ ṇ l ḷ r̪ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v Nasals: m n̪ ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r̪ r ṛ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ʉ ǝ ɵ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Noun; Number: s p; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mn 3n=6n; Syntax: SOV GN NUM-N POSS-N

~~Number:~~ 2047: Language: Tamil Dialect: Yerukala; Location: SE India (S Andhra Pradesh); Population: 40 million (75,000); Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu; Other Sources: Srinivasavarma, G. 1969. "Phonology of Yerukala," in Dravidian Linguistics: Seminar Papers, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and N. Kumaraswami, 187-202.; Consonant system: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ v s ṣ m n ṇ l ḷ r Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s ṣ Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ɨ Nasal Vowels: ẽ ã ũ õ ẽ̄ ã̄ ȭ Diphthongs: ai au; Syntax: SOV Comments: Speakers of the Yerukala dialect are all bilingual in Telugu.

~~Number:~~ 2048: Language: Tamil Dialect: Tirunelveli; Location: S India (S Tamil Nadu); Population: 40 million; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu Grammar: Kamatchinathan, A. 1969. The Tirunelveli Tamil Dialect. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.; Consonant system: p t̪ ṭ k č ɸ v ð š h m n ṇ ñ ŋ l ḷ r ɾ̣ Stops: p t̪ ṭ k Affricates: č Fricatives: ɸ v ð š h Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ɛ̄ ā ū ō Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6mf +2 honorific; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2049: Language: Tamil Dialect: Sri Lanka; Location: N Sri Lanka; Population: 40 million (2 million); Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu; Other Sources: Karunatilake, W. S. and S. Suseendirarajah. 1973. "Phonology of Sinhalese and Sri Lanka Tamil," IL 34, 180-90.; Consonant system: p t̪ t ṭ k č v m n ṇ l ḷ r Stops: p t̪ t ṭ k Affricates: č Fricatives: v Nasals: m n ṇ Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: (ɨ) (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 2050: Language: Tamil; Location: SE India (Madras); Population: 40 million; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu Dictionary: Visvanatha Pillai, V. 1963. A Tamil-English Dictionary. Madras: Madras School Book and Literature Society. Grammar: Subramoniam, Vadasery Iyemperumal. 1958. A Descriptive Analysis of a Dialect of Tamil. Bloomington: India Univ Diss. Ganesan, S. N. 1975. A Contrastive Grammar of Hindi and Tamil. Madras: Univ of Madras.; TextBooks: Kumaraswami Raja, N. and K. Doraswamy. 1966. Conversational Tamil. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ. Shanmugam Pillai, M. 1965, 1968. Spoken Tamil, 2 vols. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.; Other Sources: Rajaram, S. 1972. Tamil Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.; Consonant system: p b t̪ d̪ t ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) v s ṣ ẓ š h m n ṇ (ñ) (ŋ) l ḷ r ṛ Stops: p b t̪ d̪ t ṭ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ ẓ š h Nasals: m n ṇ (ñ) (ŋ) Laterals: l ḷ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: (ṽ) (v̄̃) Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f n Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6hH h=hum=m+f H=non-hum honorifics for 3 & 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 2051: Language: Malayalam; Location: SW India (Kerela); Population: 25 million; Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu Dictionary: Ramunni, Kalladi Thyen. 1951. Malayalam and English Vocabulary. Mangalore: Basel Mission Book Depot.; TextBooks: Peter, K. C. 1967. Malayalam for Foreigners. Ernakulam, Kerela: C.I.C.C. Book House.; Other Sources: Subramoniam,V. I. 1962. "Phonemic Outline of a Dialect of Malayalam," IL 23, 99-116. Syamala Kumari, B. 1972. Malayalam Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages. McAlpin, David. W. 1975. "The Morphophonology of the Malayalam Noun," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 206-223. Subramoniam, V. I. 1962. "Phonemic Outline of a Dialect of Malayalam," IL 23, 99-116. Sreedhar, M. V. 1972. "Phonology of the Cochin Dialect of Malayalam," IJDL 1:2, 100-25. AL 8:4; Consonant system: p (ph) b t̪ (t̪h) d̪ t ṭ (ṭh) ḍ k (kh) ɡ č (čh) ɡ̌ (f) v s ṣ š h m n̪ n ṇ ñ ŋ l ḷ ʎ̣ ɾ r Stops: p (ph) b t̪ (t̪h) d̪ t ṭ (ṭh) ḍ k (kh) ɡ Affricates: č (čh) ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ š h Nasals: m n̪ n ṇ ñ ŋ Laterals: l ḷ ʎ̣ Vibrants: ɾ r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai au ei; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C); Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 *3mfn *6mfn; Syntax: SOV AN GN; Prep/Post: POST

Краткий типологический обзор эламитского языка

~~Number:~~ 2019: Language: Elamite Dialect: Achaemenid; Location: SW Iran; Population: extinct (c. 1,000 A.D.); Classification: Elamo-Dravidian; Other Sources: McAlpin, David W. 1981. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. Blazek, Václav. 2002. "Elam: A Bridge between the Ancient Near East and Dravidian India?," Mother Tongue 7, 123-46. Starostin, George. 2002. "On the Genetic Affiliation of the Elamite Language," Mother Tongue 7, 147-70.; Consonant system: p t k s z š m n l r Stops: p t k Fricatives: s z š Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j (w); Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (e) Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u; Noun; Number: s p (normally used only with humans) Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS N+A+D; Prep/Post: POST Comments: McAlpin (1981), following earlier scholars, proposed that the extinct Elamite language was most closely related to the Dravidian family. Without denying this connection Blazek (2002) points out striking similarities with Afro-Asiatic. Starostin (2002) rejects a close connection with Dravidian and regards Elamite as in some sense intermediate between Nostratic and Afro-Asiatic. The precise position of Elamite is not yet clear.

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Картвельской семьи

~~Number:~~ 1595: Language: Proto-Kartvelian; Location: Georgia; Classification: Kartvelian; Other Sources: Gamkrelidze, Thomas V. 1966. "A Typology of Common Kartvelian," Lg 42, 69-83.; Consonant system: ph pʔ th tʔ kh kʔ qh qʔ b d ɡ tsh tsʔ ćh ćʔ čh čʔ dz ɡ́ ɡ̌ s ś š x h z ź ɣ m n l r Stops: ph pʔ b th tʔ d kh kʔ ɡ qh qʔ Affricates: tsh tsʔ dz ćh ćʔ ɡ́ čh čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z ś ź š x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: o Long Vowels: v̄ all

~~Number:~~ 1596: Language: Georgian; Location: Georgia; Population: 3.3 million; Classification: Kartvelian Grammar: Tschenkéli, Kita. 1958. Einführung in die georgische Sprache, 2 vols. Zürich: Amirani. Chikobava, A. S. 1967. "Gruzinskij jazyk," in JNS 4, 22-61. Vogt, Hans. 1971. Grammaire de la langue géorgienne. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.; TextBooks: Tsibaxashvili, G. I. 1973. Elementarnyj kurs gruzinskogo jazyka. Tbilisi: Tbilisi Univ.; Other Sources: Robins, R. H. 1952. "Notes on the Phonetics of the Georgian Word," BSOAS 14, 55-72. Chikobáva. Arnol'd. 1971. Gruzinskij jazyk. Tbilisi: Ganatleba. AL 6:8.; Consonant system: ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qʔ b d̪ ɡ t̪sh t̪sʔ čh čʔ d̪z ɡ̌ s̪ š χ h v z̪ ž ʁ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qʔ Affricates: t̪sh t̪sʔ d̪z čh čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: i u e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (c)(c)(c)(c)(c)(c)v(c)(c)(c)(c)(c) Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN/(NA) GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS) D+Num+A+N Ergative: Erg Comments: yes

~~Number:~~ 1597: Language: Svan; Location: NW Georgia; Population: 35,000; Classification: Kartvelian Grammar: Topuria, V. T. 1967. "Svanskij jazyk," in JNS 4, 77-94.; Consonant system: ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qh qʔ b d̪ ɡ t̪sh t̪sʔ čh čʔ d̪z ɡ̌ s̪ š x h (v) z̪ ž ɣ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qh qʔ Affricates: t̪sh t̪sʔ d̪z čh čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: (v) s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3 *6; Syntax: SOV AN Ergative: Erg; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1598: Language: Mingrelian Alternate Name: Zan; Location: W Georgia; Population: 300,000; Classification: Kartvelian: Zan Grammar: Kiziria, A. I. 1967. "Zanskij jazyk," in JNS 4, 62-76.; Consonant system: ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ t̪sh t̪sʔ čh čʔ d̪z ɡ̌ (f) s̪ š x h v z̪ ž ɣ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qʔ ʔ Affricates: t̪sh t̪sʔ d̪z čh čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mfn; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N Ergative: Erg; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1599: Language: Laz; Location: SW Georgia; Population: 50,000; Classification: Kartvelian: Zan; Other Sources: Dumézil, Georges. 1937. Contes lazes. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.; Consonant system:; Pronouns: indef; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N

Обзоры типов языков, возможно, входящих в Евразийскую макросемью

~~Number:~~ 1646: Language: Etruscan; Location: N Italy; Population: (+)c. 400 AD; Classification: ?Eurasiatic Grammar: Bonfante, Larissa. 1990. Etruscan: Univ of California Press. Pfiffig, Ambros Josef. 1969. Die etruskische Sprache. Graz: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt. Pallottino, M. 1936. Elementi di lingua etrusca. Florence.; Other Sources: Fowler, Murray. 1974. "Etruscan Language," EB 6, 1018-9. Pallottino, M. 1955. The Etruscans. Baltimore: Penguin. Pallottino, M. 1977. "La lingua degli Etruschi," Popoli e civiltà dell'Italia antica 6.; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh tsh f s š h v m n l r Stops: p ph t th k kh Affricates: tsh Fricatives: f v s š h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r; Vowel system: i u e a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Modified Vowels: vowel harmony Diphthongs: ai au ei eu ui Stress: initial; Noun; Number: s p; Syntax: SVO GN N-NUM; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

Краткие типологические обзоры языков Афразийской семьи

Языки афразийской семьи ведут свою историю от праафразийского языка. На основе этимологических баз праязыков их групп (египетской, кушитской, ливийской, семитской, чадской) реконструирован праафразийский словарь.

~~Number:~~ 1317: Language: Ancient Egyptian; Location: Egypt; Population: c. 2,500 B.C.; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Ancient Egyptian Grammar: Sander-Hansen, C. E. 1963. Ågyptische Grammatik. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Donadoni, Sergio. 1963. Appunti di grammatica egiziana. Milan: Istituto Editoriale Cisalpino. du Bourguet, Pierre. 1971. Grammaire égyptienne. Louvain: Peeters. černy, Jaroslav. 1975. A Late Egyptian Grammar. Rome: Biblical Institute Press.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ b d ɡ č ɡ̌ m n r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [2]) N-POSS D+Num+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1318: Language: Coptic; Location: Egypt; Population: extinct (19th c.); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Ancient Egyptian Dictionary: Cerny, J. 1976. Coptic Etymological Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. Grammar: Elanskaja, A. I. 1964. Koptskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka. Kosack, Wolfgany. 1974. Lehrbuch des Koptischen. Graz: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt.; Other Sources: Houghton, Herbert Pierrepont. 1959. The Coptic Verb. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Knudsen, Ebbe E. 1961. "Saidic Coptic Vowel Phonemes," Acta Orientalia 26, 29-42.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɟ ɡ č ɡ̌ s š x h β v m n l r Stops: p b t d ɟ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: β v s š x h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō; Syllable: CV(C)(C) Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1319: Language: Proto-Berber; Location: N Africa; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber; Other Sources: Prasse, Karl-G. 1972-74. Manuel de grammaire touaregue, 3 vols. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.; Consonant system: t k b d ɡ f s (š) χ h z ʁ m n l r Stops: b t d k ɡ Fricatives: f s z (š) χ ʁ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ d z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4mf 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1320: Language: Guanche; Location: Canary Islands; Population: extinct (16th c.); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Guanche; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1321: Language: East Numidian Alternate Name: Old Libyan; Location: Morocco; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: East Numidian; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1322: Language: Siwa; Location: NW Egypt; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1323: Language: Awjila; Location: NE Libya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1324: Language: Sokna; Location: NC Libya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1325: Language: Ghadames; Location: Libya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1326: Language: Tamahaq Dialect: Ahaggar; Location: S Algeria; Population: 200,000 (10,000); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Tuareg Dictionary: Cortade, Jean-Marie. 1967. Lexique français-touareg. Algiers: Arts et Métiers Graphiques. Grammar: Prasse, Karl-G. 1972-74. Manuel de grammaire touaregue, 3 vols. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.; Consonant system: t̪ k q (ʔ) b d̪ ɟ ɡ f s̪ š χ h z̪ ž ʁ m n̪ ñ l̪ r Stops: b t̪ d̪ ɟ k ɡ q (ʔ) Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all cɒ t d z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ ɐ v̄̄ (overlonɡ) all but ǝ ɐ; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4mf 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1327: Language: Tamazheq; Location: Niger; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Tuareg; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1328: Language: Tamasheq; Location: Niger; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Tuareg; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1329: Language: Zenaga; Location: SW Mauritania; Population: 16,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Western Grammar: Nicolas, F. 1953. La langue berbère de Mauritanie. Dakar: IFAN.; Consonant system: t k q b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š h ð z ž ɣ (ʕ) m n ñ l r Stops: b t d k ɡ q Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f θ ð s z š ž ɣ (ʕ) h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t d k θ ð s z l r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4mf 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: VSO/SVO NG ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1330: Language: Shilha; Location: SW Morocco; Population: 3 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Atlas Grammar: Applegate, Joseph R. 1958. An Outline of the Structure of Shilha. New York: American Council of Learned Societies.; Other Sources: Nakano, Aki'o. 1976. Dialogues in Moroccan Shilha. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo Univ.; Consonant system: t k q (ʔ) b d ɡ m n l r Stops: b t d k ɡ q (ʔ) Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but cɒ and ɡlides cɒ t d k s z l r cʷ k ɡ q χ ʁ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Stress: final; Syntax: VSO NA Comments: Men, but not women, are bilingual in Arabic.

~~Number:~~ 1331: Language: Tamazight Dialect: Ayt Ayache; Location: C Morocco; Population: 2 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Atlas Dictionary: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971a. A Computerized Lexicon of Tamazight. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, Univ of Michigan. Grammar: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971b. A Reference Grammar of Tamazight. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, Univ of Michigan.; TextBooks: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971c. A Course in Spoken Tamazight. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, Univ of Michigan.; Other Sources: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1968. Tamazight Verb Structure. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: t̪h k̄ q qʷ ʔ b d̪ ɡ̄ m n l̪ ɾ Stops: b t̪h d̪ k̄ ɡ̄ q qʷ ʔ Nasals: m n Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ most cɒ t d s z l ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Noun Classes: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: VSO/(SVO) NA NG ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1332: Language: Tamazight Dialect: Ait Ndhir; Location: C Morocco; Population: 2 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Atlas Grammar: Willms, Alfred. 1972. Grammatik der südlichen Beraberdialekte. Glückstadt: J. J. Augustin. Penchoen, Thomas G. 1973. Tamazight of the Ayt Ndhir. Los Angeles: Undena.; Other Sources: Harries, Jeanette. 1970. "A Berber Tanšhat: In a Tamazight Dialect," BSOAS 33, 308-21.; Consonant system: t̪ k kʷ q b d̪ ɡ ɡ̄ʷ č̄ ɡ̌̄ m n̪ l r Stops: b t̪ d̪ k kʷ ɡ ɡ̄ʷ q Affricates: č̄ ɡ̌̄ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but θ x xʷ β ð ɣ ɣʷ ʁ j w (č ɡ̌ ɡʷ are always lonɡ) cɒ t ð (s) z r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i æ Central Vowels: (ǝ) Back Vowels: u Stress: final; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: VSO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1333: Language: Kabyle; Location: N Algeria; Population: 1 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Kabyle Dictionary: Newmen, Francis William. 1887. Kabail Vocabulary. London: Trübner. Grammar: Hanoteau, Adolphe. 1906. Essai de grammaire kabyle. Algiers. [Reprinted 1976 by Philo Press, Amsterdam.] Hanouz, S. 1968. Grammaire berbère. Paris: Klincksieck.; TextBooks: Saı̈d, Boulifa S. A.1910. Une première année de langue kabyle. Algiers: Adolphe Tourdan. Vincennes, Louis de and J.-M. Dallet. 1960. Initiation à la langue berbère (Kabylie). Fort-Nationale, Algeria: Fichier de documentation berbère.; Consonant system: t k kʷ q b d ɡ ɡʷ ts č dz ɡ̌ m n l r Stops: b t d k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ q Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t d s z r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1334: Language: Shawiya; Location: NE Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1335: Language: Tidikelt; Location: Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1336: Language: Tuat; Location: C Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1337: Language: Riff; Location: N Morocco; Population: 1 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati Dictionary: Ibañez, Esteban. 1959. Diccionario español-senhayi. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Africanos.; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system: p t̪ k q b d̪ ɡ ɡ̌ m n ñ l ʎ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q Affricates: ɡ̌ Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ʎ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t d s z Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1338: Language: Ghmara; Location: Morocco; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1339: Language: Tlemcen; Location: Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1340: Language: Sheliff Basin; Location: Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1341: Language: Gurara; Location: C Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: Mzab-Wargla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1342: Language: Mzab; Location: NC Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: Mzab-Wargla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1343: Language: Wargla; Location: NE Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: Mzab-Wargla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1344: Language: Ghardaia; Location: NC Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: Mzab-Wargla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1345: Language: Tugurt; Location: Algeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: Mzab-Wargla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1346: Language: Tmagurt; Location: S Tunisia; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1347: Language: Sened; Location: S Tunisia; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1348: Language: Jerba; Location: S Tunisia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1349: Language: Tamezret; Location: Tunisia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1350: Language: Taujjut; Location: Tunisia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1351: Language: Zwara; Location: Libya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1352: Language: Nefusi; Location: Libya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1353: Language: Proto-Chadic; Location: N Africa; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic; Other Sources: Newman, Paul. 1977. Chadic Classification and Reconstructions, Afroasiatic Linguistics 5:1.; Consonant system: p t c k b ɓ d ɗ ɟ ʄ ɡ f s š x z m n ɬ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ c ɟ ʄ k ɡ Fricatives: f s z š x Nasals: m n Laterals: ɬ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj k ɡ x cʷ k ɡ x ?Nc mb ... Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ a only; Tones: hi lo (perhaps a pitch accent)

~~Number:~~ 1354: Language: Masa; Location: SW Chad (W TandjilВ); Population: 55,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f; Syntax: SVO NG

~~Number:~~ 1355: Language: Zime; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1356: Language: Mesme; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1357: Language: Marba; Location: SW Chad (W TandjilВ); Population: 5,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1358: Language: Musey; Location: N Cameroon; Population: 48,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa Grammar: Platiel, Suzanne. 1968. Esquisse d'une étude du musey. BSELAF 6.; Consonant system: p t k b mb d ɡ č ɡ̌ f s ç h v z m n ŋ l r Stops: p b mb t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z ç h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi mid lo; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1359: Language: Somrai; Location: SW Chad (N TandjilВ); Population: 50,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1360: Language: Tumak; Location: SW Chad (E TandjilВ); Population: 11,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai Dictionary: Caprile, Jean-Pierre. 1975. Lexique tumak-français. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b ɓ d̪ ɗ̪ ɡ ŋɡ ɡ̌ s h m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ r ṛ Stops: p b ɓ t̪ d̪ ɗ̪ k ɡ ŋɡ Affricates: ɡ̌ Fricatives: s h Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ṛ Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɡ ɡ̌ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e (ɛ) Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ũ õ; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi mid lo ris fall; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f; Pronouns: 1 4de 4i 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO GN N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1361: Language: Ndam; Location: SW Chad (SE TandjilВ); Population: 670; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1362: Language: Sarwa; Location: SW Chad (S Chari-Baguirimi); Population: 400; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1363: Language: Gadang; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1364: Language: Mod; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1365: Language: Miltu; Location: SC Chad (NW Moyen-Chari); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1366: Language: Nancere; Location: SW Chad (S TandjilВ); Population: 35,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere; Other Sources: Hoffman, Carl. 1971. "On the Classification of Nancere," JWAL 8, 5-12.; Consonant system:; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2mf 5 3mf 6

~~Number:~~ 1367: Language: Lele; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1368: Language: Gabri; Location: N Central African Republic; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1369: Language: Kabalai; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1370: Language: Kera; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Kera; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1371: Language: Kwang; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Kera; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1372: Language: Mokulu; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1373: Language: Dangla Alternate Name: Dangaleat; Location: SC Chad (N Guera); Population: 18,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla Dictionary: Fédry, Jacques. 1971. Dictionnaire dangaléat. Lyon: Afrique et Langage.; Other Sources: Fédry, Jacques. 1969. "Syntagmes de détermination en dangaléat," JWAL 6, 5-19. Fédry, Jacques. 1971a. "Masculin, féminin et collectif en dangaléat (groupe 'sokoro-mubi' - Tchad," JAL 10, 34-46. Fédry, Jacques. 1971b. Phonologie du dangaléat. Lyon: Afrique et Language.; Consonant system: p t̪ c k b ɓ d̪ ɗ̪ ɟ ʄ ɡ s z m n̪ ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b ɓ t̪ d̪ ɗ̪ c ɟ ʄ k ɡ Fricatives: s z Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all Nc Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi lo ris fall Stress: root initial; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1374: Language: Migama; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1375: Language: Mahwa; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1376: Language: Jegu; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1377: Language: Mogum; Location: SC Chad (C Guera); Population: 6,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1378: Language: Bidiyo Alternate Name: Bidiya; Location: Chad; Population: 14,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1379: Language: Mubi; Location: SW Chad (NE Guera); Population: 36,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1380: Language: Masmaje; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1381: Language: Kajakse; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1382: Language: Kujarge; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1383: Language: Toram; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1384: Language: Sokoro; Location: SW Chad (C Guera); Population: 8,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Sokoro; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1385: Language: Barain; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Sokoro; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1386: Language: Saba; Location: Chad; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Sokoro; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1387: Language: Tera; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 50,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera Grammar: Newman, Paul. 1970. A Grammar of Tera. UCPL 57.; Other Sources: Newman, Paul. 1964. "A Word List of Tera," JWAL 1:2, 33-50.; Consonant system: p t k kʷ b mb ɓ d nd ɗ ʄ ɡ ɡʷ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ ɠ č ɡ̌ ñɡ̌ f s š x xʷ v z ž ɣ ɣʷ m n ñ ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b mb ɓ t d nd ɗ ʄ k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ ɠ Affricates: č ɡ̌ ñɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x xʷ ɣ ɣʷ Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj p ɓ v Glides: j (w); Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Tones: hi mid lo; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1388: Language: Jara; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 40,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1389: Language: Ga'anda; Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 10,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera; Other Sources: Newman, Roxana Ma. 1971. "Downstep in Ga'anda," JAL 10, 15-27.; Consonant system: p t k kʷ mb ɓ nd ɗ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ č ñɡ̌ f s š x xʷ m n ŋ l ɬ r Stops: p mb ɓ t nd ɗ k kʷ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ Affricates: č ñɡ̌ Fricatives: f s š x xʷ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cʷ k ŋɡ x Glides: j ʔj w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi mid lo (ris) (fall) downstep downdrift; Noun; Number: s p Articles: def; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1390: Language: Hona; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1391: Language: Bura Dialect: Pabir; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 100,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Other Sources: STAL; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž ɣ m n ñ ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Glides: j ʔj w ʔw; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o; Tones: hi lo

~~Number:~~ 1392: Language: Chibak; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 20,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1393: Language: Putai; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1394: Language: Margi Dialect: Lassa; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 151,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Other Sources: STAL WALS; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x v z ž ɣ m n ñ ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Glides: j ʔj w ʔw; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o; Tones: hi lo; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1395: Language: Margi; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 151,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi Grammar: Hoffman, Carl. 1963. A Grammar of the Margi Language. London: Oxford Univ Press.; Consonant system: p pt t c k ʔ b ɓ bd bɗ d ɗ ɟ ɡ pts ts pč č bdz dz bɡ̌ ɡ̌ f fs s fç š ç x v vz z vj ̂ ž j ̂ ɣ m n mñ ñ ŋ l ɬ bɮ ɮ (v̊) r Stops: p b ɓ pt bd bɗ t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: pts bdz ts dz pč bɡ̌ č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v fs vz s z š ž ç j ̂ fç vj ̂ x ɣ Nasals: m n mñ ñ ŋ Laterals: bɮ l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: (v̊) r Modified Consonants: Nc p b t d c ɟ k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ ts dz č ɡ̌ š ɬ cʷ p b ɓ mb t nt k ɡ ŋk ŋɡ nts f v s x ɣ m ŋ ɬ Glides: j ʔj w ʔw; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u ɔ; Tones: hi lo ris (fall)

~~Number:~~ 1396: Language: Kilba; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 80,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Other Sources: STAL; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž ɣ m n ñ ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Glides: j ʔj w ʔw; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄; Tones: hi lo

~~Number:~~ 1397: Language: Higi Dialect: Nkafa; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 203,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Other Sources: Mohrlang, Roger. 1971. "Vectors, Prosodies, and Higi Vowels," JAL 10, 75-86. Mohrlang, Roger. 1972. Higi Phonology. Studies in Nigerian Languages, No. 2. Zaria: Institute of Linguistics.; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x v z ž ɣ m n ŋ l ɬ ɮ v̊ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: v̊ r Modified Consonants: Nc p b t d k ɡ ts dz č ɡ̌ cj all but r cʷ all but l Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V; Tones: hi lo ris Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1398: Language: Higi Dialect: Baza; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 203,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Other Sources: STAL; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š x h v z ž ɣ m n ñ ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Glides: j w ʔw; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o; Tones: hi lo

~~Number:~~ 1399: Language: Bana; Location: Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1400: Language: Sukur; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 10,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1401: Language: Lamang; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: VSO

~~Number:~~ 1402: Language: Mandara Alternate Name: Malgwa; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 190,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1403: Language: Paduko Alternate Name: Podokwo; Location: N Cameroon; Population: 10,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: VSO

~~Number:~~ 1404: Language: Glavda; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 19,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara Dictionary: Rapp, Eugen Ludwig, Brigitta Benzing and Christraud Mühle. 1968, 1969. Dictionary of the Glavda Language, 2 vols. Frankfurt on Main: Frankfurt on Main Bible Society.; Consonant system: p t k b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ŋɡ tl č dl ɡ̌ f s š ç x v z ž ɣ n ñ ŋ ŋʷ ŋj l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ŋɡ Affricates: tl dl č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž ç x ɣ Nasals: n ñ ŋ ŋʷ ŋj Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Tones: hi lo ris fall; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO ND N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1405: Language: Guduf; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1406: Language: Dghwede; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1407: Language: Gvoko; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1408: Language: Mafa; Location: Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1409: Language: Mofu Alternate Name: Mofu-Gudur Dialect: Zulgo; Location: N Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam; Other Sources: Haller, Beat. 1980. Phonology of Zulgo. Yaoundé, Cameroon: Institut des Sciences Humaines.; Consonant system: p t k kʷ ʔ b mb ɓ d nd ɗ ɡ ŋɡ ɡʷ ts dz ndz f s h v z m n ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b mb ɓ t d nd ɗ k kʷ ɡ ŋɡ ɡʷ ʔ Affricates: ts dz ndz Fricatives: f v s z h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u ɔ Long Vowels: (v̄) Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi mid lo downstep; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1410: Language: Gisiga; Location: N Cameroon; Population: 44,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1411: Language: Mada; Location: Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1412: Language: Hurza; Location: Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1413: Language: Muktele; Location: Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1414: Language: Daba Dialect: Musgoy; Location: N Cameroon; Population: 31,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Daba; Other Sources: Wedekind, Klaus. 1976. "Kolá, tpalá, ou ʔkpalá ?: Notes sur les occlusives doubles dans la langue daba-mousgoy (Kola) du Nord-Cameroun," AFL 2, 91-104.; Consonant system: p pt t̪ kt k kʷ (ʔkp) b ɓ bd d̪ ɗ̪ ɡd ɡ ɡʷ t̪s d̪z f s̪ h v z̪ m n̪ l̪ ɬ̪ ɮ̪ r Stops: p b ɓ pt bd t̪ d̪ ɗ̪ kt ɡd k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ (ʔkp) Affricates: t̪s d̪z Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ ɬ̪ ɮ̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɡ dz Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (y) e (ø) Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V(C); Syntax: SVO NG ND N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1415: Language: Gawar; Location: Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Daba; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1416: Language: Hina; Location: N Cameroon; Population: 4,300; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Daba; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1417: Language: Gudu; Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1418: Language: Bata; Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 39,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1419: Language: Bata Dialect: Bachama; Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 39,000 (20,000); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata; Other Sources: STAL; Consonant system: p t k kp ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɡb č ɡ̌ f s h v z m n ŋ l r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ kp ɡb ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j ʔj w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄; Tones: hi lo

~~Number:~~ 1420: Language: Gude; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 10,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata; Other Sources: Hoskison, James. 1974. "Prosodies and Verb Stems in Gude," Linguistics 141, 17-26. WALS; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ts dz f s x v z ɣ m n ŋ l ɬ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: Nc p b t d k ɡ s z x ɬ; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: v̄; Syllable: CV; Tones: hi lo; Syntax: VSO

~~Number:~~ 1421: Language: Nzangi; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1422: Language: Musgu Dialect: Vulum; Location: SW Chad (N Mayo-Kebbi); Population: 50,000 (8,500); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B Grammar: Tourneux, Henry. 1978. Le mulwi ou vulum de mogroum (Tchad). Paris: SELAF.; Consonant system: p t̪ k b ɓ d̪ ɗ ɡ f s h v z m n̪ (ñ) ŋ l ɬ ɮ ɾ Stops: p b ɓ t̪ d̪ ɗ k ɡ Fricatives: f v s z h Nasals: m n̪ (ñ) ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (y) e (ø) Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī (ē) ā ū (ō) Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C) Nˈ; Tones: hi lo ris fall; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f (sing only) Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3mf 6hN N=non-hum; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1423: Language: Gidar; Location: N Cameroon; Population: 50,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1424: Language: Buduma; Location: W Chad (Lac); Population: 25,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B; Other Sources: Benton, P. A. 1912. Notes on Some Languages of the Western Sudan. London: Oxford Univ Press. [Reprinted 1968 by Frank Cass & Co, London, as The Languages and Peoples of Bornu, vol 1.] WALS; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f h m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Nc b ɡ ɡ̌ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1425: Language: Kotoko; Location: N Cameroon; Population: 40,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B; Consonant system:; Noun; Number: s p; Syntax: NG

~~Number:~~ 1426: Language: Logone Alternate Name: Lagwan; Location: Cameroon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1427: Language: Hausa; Location: N Nigeria (Kano); Population: 20 million (12 million speak it as a first language); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Hausa Dictionary: Abraham, R. C. 1962. Dictionary of the Hausa Language. London: Univ of London Press. Skinner, Neil. 1970. English-Hausa Dictionary. Zatia: Northern Nigerian Publishing Company. Grammar: Abraham, R. C. 1959. The Language of the Hausa People. London: Univ of London Press. Taylor, F. W. 1959. A Practical Hausa Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.; TextBooks: Hodge, Carleton T. and Ibrahim Umaru. 1963. Hausa Basic Course. Washington, D.C.: Foreign Service Institute. Kraft, Charles H. and Marguerite E. Kraft. 1973. Introductory Hausa. Berkeley: Univ of California Press. Kraft, Charles H. and Anthony Kirk-Greene. 1973. Teach Yourself Hausa. London: English Universities Press. Cowan, J. Ronayne and Russell G. Schuh. 1975. Spoken Hausa. Ithaca, N.Y.: Spoken Language Services.; Other Sources: Kraft, Charles H. 1963. A Study of Hausa Syntax, 3 vols. HSL 8-10. Hoffman, Carl. 1969. "Hausa," in TNL, 73-84.; Consonant system: t k kʷ kj kʔ kʔʷ kʔj ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɡʷ ɡj č ɡ̌ ɸ s sʔ š h z m n l ɾ ɾ̣ Stops: b ɓ t d ɗ k kʷ kj kʔ kʔʷ kʔj ɡ ɡʷ ɡj ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: ɸ s sʔ z š h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j ʔj w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: (C)V(C) Nˈ; Tones: hi lo fall downdrift; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6 + indef; Syntax: SVO AN/NA NG DN/ND N-NUM N-POSS D+A+N+Num; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1428: Language: Gwandara; Location: C Nigeria (Benue-Plateau); Population: 30,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Hausa; Other Sources: Matsushita, Shuji. 1974. A Comparative Vocabulary of Gwandara Dialects. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.; Consonant system: p t k kp b d ɡ ɡb č ɡ̌ s š h z m n l ɾ Stops: p b t d k ɡ kp ɡb Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z š h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: cj p k ɡ cʷ b k ɡ č h Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Nasal Vowels: ṽ all; Tones: hi mid lo (+ 6 contour tones); Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1429: Language: Karekare; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1430: Language: Bole; Location: NE Nigeria (Bornu); Population: 32,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; TextBooks: Lukas, J. 1971. "Über das erweiterte Verb im Bolanci (Nordnigerien)," JAL 10, 1-14.; Other Sources: Benton, P. A. 1912. Notes on Some Languages of the Western Sudan. London: Oxford Univ Press. [Reprinted 1968 by Frank Cass & Co, London, as The Languages and Peoples of Bornu, vol 1.]; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ č ɡ̌ f s š h z m n ŋ l r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ɠ ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɡ ɡ̌ z Glides: j ʔj w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Tones: hi fall; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1431: Language: Bele; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1432: Language: Ngamo; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 18,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1433: Language: Maha; Location: N Nigeria (North-Eastern); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Other Sources: Newman, Paul. 1965. "A Brief Note on the Maha Language," JWAL 2:1, 57-8.; Consonant system: p t k b ɓ d ɗ ɡ č ɡ̌ s š h m n ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s š h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: m̄ Nc Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6

~~Number:~~ 1434: Language: Kirfi; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1435: Language: Deno; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1436: Language: Kubi; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1437: Language: Galambu; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1438: Language: Gera; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1439: Language: Kanakuru; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 20,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale; Other Sources: STAL WALS; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɡ̌ f s š m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s š Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄; Tones: hi lo; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1440: Language: Tangale; Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 100,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale; Other Sources: Jungraithmayr H. 1971. "The Tangale Vowel Harmony System Roconsidered," JAL 10, 28-33. WALS; Consonant system:; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i I e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u ʋ o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all ? Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Noun; Number: s p; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NG N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1441: Language: Pero; Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 20,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1442: Language: Kupto; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1443: Language: Gerka; Location: EC Nigeria (NE Benue-Plateau); Population: 8,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1444: Language: Angas; Location: C Nigeria (Benue-Plateau); Population: 100,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Other Sources: Burquest, D. A. 1971. A Preliminary Study of Angas Phonology. Studies in Nigerian Languages, No. 1. Zaria: Institute of Linguistics. STAL; Consonant system: p t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š h v z ž ɣ m n ŋ l r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž ɣ h Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: Nc p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ č ɡ̌ s š ž l w cj p b k ɡ cʷ p b ɓ k ɡ č ɡ̌ f v s š ž m Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i I e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ɨ̄ ā Diphthongs: ǝI; Syllable: (C)V(C)(C); Tones: hi mid lo; Noun; Number: s p; Syntax: SVO NA N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1445: Language: Sura Alternate Name: Mupun; Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau); Population: 40,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Other Sources: STAL WALS; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh ɓ ɗ č čh f s š h v z ž ɣ m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p ph ɓ t th ɗ k kh Affricates: č čh Fricatives: f v s z š ž ɣ h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄; Tones: hi lo fall; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1446: Language: Kofyar Dialect: Kwolla; Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau); Population: 70,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas Dictionary: Netting, Robert. 1967. A Word List of Kofyar. Research Notes from the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages 1.2. Ibadan: Univ of Ibadan.; Consonant system: p t k b ɓ d ɗ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š v z ž m n ŋ l r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž Nasals: m n ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ all; Tones: hi mid lo; Syntax: NG N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1447: Language: Chip; Location: C Nigeria (NE Benue-Plateau); Population: 6,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1448: Language: Goemai Alternate Name: Ankwe; Location: C Nigeria (Benue-Plateau); Population: 80,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Other Sources: STAL WALS; Consonant system: p ph t th k kh b ɓ d ɗ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š h v z ž m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p ph b ɓ t th d ɗ k kh ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄; Tones: hi lo; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1449: Language: Montol; Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau); Population: 20,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1450: Language: Tal; Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau); Population: 10,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1451: Language: Pyapun; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1452: Language: Koenoem; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1453: Language: Fyer; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1454: Language: Ron; Location: C Nigeria (Plateau); Population: 20,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SVO

~~Number:~~ 1455: Language: Sha; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1456: Language: Kulere; Location: Nigeria (Benue-Plateau); Population: 8,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron; Consonant system:; Pronouns: 1 4d 4ie 2mf 5 3mf 6

~~Number:~~ 1457: Language: Karfa; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1458: Language: Shagawu; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1459: Language: Duwai; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Bade; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1460: Language: Bade; Location: NE Nigeria (NW North-Eastern); Population: 100,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Bade; Consonant system:; Syntax: NG

~~Number:~~ 1461: Language: Ngizim; Location: N Nigeria (NW North-Eastern); Population: 25,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Bade Dictionary: Schuh, Russell G. 1981. A Dictionary of Ngizim. UCPL 99.; Other Sources: Schuh, Russell G. 1971. "Verb Forms and Verb Aspects in Ngizim," JAL 10, 47-60.; Consonant system: p t c k b ɓ d ɗ ɟ ɡ f s š h v z ž m n ñ l ɬ ɮ ɾ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ Fricatives: f v s z š ž h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: ɾ r Modified Consonants: cʷ k ɡ ŋɡ Nc b d ɡ Glides: j ʔj w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: (ɨ) a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: ai au; Tones: hi lo (ris) fall downstep downdrift; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA/AN

~~Number:~~ 1462: Language: Warji Alternate Name: Warjawa; Location: NC Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 40,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1463: Language: Pa'a Alternate Name: Owon Afa; Location: Nigeria (Western); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Other Sources: Awobuluyi, Oladele. 1972. "The Morphophonemics of Owon Afa," Research Notes from the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages 5.2-3, 25-44.; Consonant system: p t k kp b d ɡ ɡb č ɡ̌ f s š h hʷ m n ŋ ŋm l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ kp ɡb Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s š h hʷ Nasals: m n ŋ ŋm Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cʷ h Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ɛ̃ ã ũ ɔ̃; Syllable: Nˈ; Tones: hi mid lo; Syntax: SVO AN NG; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1464: Language: Siri Alternate Name: Sirawa; Location: NC Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 2,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1465: Language: Diri Alternate Name: Diryawa; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 3,300; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1466: Language: Jimbin; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1467: Language: Miya Alternate Name: Miyawa; Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 5,200; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1468: Language: Mburku; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1469: Language: Kariya; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1470: Language: Tsagu; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1471: Language: Zaar Alternate Name: Seyawa; Location: EC Nigeria (North-Eastern); Population: 50,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Other Sources: Schneeberg, Nan. 1971. "Sayanci Verb Tonology," JAL 10, 87-100.; Consonant system: p t c k b ɓ d ɗ ɟ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š v z ž m n ñ ŋ l ɬ ɮ r Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f v s z š ž Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɟ ɡ dz ɡ̌ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: Nˈ; Tones: hi mid lo ris fall; Syntax: SVO NA NG

~~Number:~~ 1472: Language: Barawa; Location: EC Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1473: Language: Zeem; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1474: Language: Polchi; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1475: Language: Geji; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1476: Language: Guruntum; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1477: Language: Ju; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1478: Language: Boghom; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1479: Language: Mangas; Location: Nigeria; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1480: Language: Hamar Alternate Name: Hamer; Location: SW Ethiopia (S Gemu Gofa); Population: 22,500; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: South Grammar: Lydall, Jean. 1976. "Hamer," in NSLE, 393-438.; Consonant system: p t k qʔ ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ ts č ɡ̌ s š h z m n ñ ŋ l ɾ Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ɠ qʔ ʔ Affricates: ts č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z š h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ s m n l r ... Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Modified Vowels: vowel harmony Ḭ ɛ̰ æ̰ ʋ̰ ɔ̰ (v̰ = constricted pharynx and retracted tonɡue root; v = open pharynx and advanced tonɡue root) Diphthongs: aj aw je jo ej oj we ow; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3; Syntax: SOV NA GN ND N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1481: Language: Ari; Location: SW Ethiopia (W Gemu Gofa); Population: 32,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: South; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1482: Language: Dime; Location: SW Ethiopia (NW Gemu Gofa); Population: 2,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: South; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1483: Language: Dizi Alternate Name: Maji; Location: SW Ethiopia (SW Kefa); Population: 18,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Dizoid Grammar: Allan, Edward J. 1976. "Dizi," in NSLE, 377-92.; Consonant system: t tʔ k kʔ b d ɡ tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s š h β z ž m n l r Stops: b t tʔ d k kʔ ɡ Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: β f s z š ž h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) lˈ Nˈ; Tones: hi mid lo; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN/NA GN NUM-N/N-NUM POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1484: Language: Nao Alternate Name: Nayi; Location: SW Ethiopia (W Kefa); Population: 5,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Dizoid; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1485: Language: Shako Alternate Name: Sheko; Location: SW Ethiopia (W Kefa); Population: 23,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Dizoid; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1486: Language: Bambeshi; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Mao; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1487: Language: Hozo; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Mao; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1488: Language: Sezo; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Mao; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1489: Language: Ganza; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Mao; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1490: Language: Kafa Alternate Name: Kefa; Location: SW Ethiopia (C Kefa); Population: 170,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: South Grammar: Cerulli, Enrico. 1951. La lingua caffina. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente. Fleming, Harold C. 1976. "Kefa (Gonga) Languages," in NSLE, 351-76.; Consonant system: p (pʔ) t tʔ k k ʔ b d ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f š h m n l r Stops: p (pʔ) b t tʔ d k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f š h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ h Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi lo; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1491: Language: Mocha Alternate Name: Shekkacho; Location: SW Ethiopia (SC Ilubabor); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: South Dictionary: Leslau, Wolf. 1959. A Dictionary of Moča (Southwestern Ethiopia). UCPL 18.; Other Sources: E; Consonant system: p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ s̪ š h m n̪ l̪ Stops: p pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: s̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ h Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ; Tones: hi lo fall; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1492: Language: Bosha; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: South; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1493: Language: Anfillo Alternate Name: Southern Mao; Location: W Ethiopia (N Ilubabor); Population: 2,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: Central; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1494: Language: Naga; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1495: Language: Guba; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1496: Language: Boro Alternate Name: Shinasha; Location: W Ethiopia (W Gojam); Population: 4,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1497: Language: Amuru; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1498: Language: Janjero Alternate Name: Yemsa; Location: SW Ethiopia (S Gemu Gofa); Population: 1,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Janjero Grammar: Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l' Oriente.; Consonant system: p pʔ t tʔ k qʔ ʔ b d ḍʔ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ ɸ f s š χ h z ʁ m mʔ n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p pʔ b t tʔ d ḍʔ k ɡ qʔ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: ɸ f s z š χ ʁ h Nasals: m mʔ n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? Glides: j jʔ w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6 politeness: 5 pol; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1499: Language: Fuga; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Janjero; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1500: Language: Bencho Alternate Name: Gimira; Location: SW Ethiopia (N Kefa ); Population: 5,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Gimira; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1501: Language: She; Location: SW Ethiopia (SE Ilubabor); Population: 42,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Gimira; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1502: Language: Chara; Location: SW Ethiopia (C Kefa); Population: 1,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Chara; Other Sources: Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue Sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.; Consonant system: t tʔ k kʔ ʔ b d dʔ ɡ tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s š h z ž m n nʔ l r Stops: b t tʔ d dʔ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š ž h Nasals: m n nʔ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? Glides: j ʔj w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1503: Language: Basketo; Location: SW Ethiopia (C Gemu Gofa); Population: 9,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: West; Other Sources: Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue Sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente. E; Consonant system: p t tʔ k kʔ b bʔ d dʔ ɡ tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s š h z m mʔ n nʔ l r Stops: p b bʔ t tʔ d dʔ k kʔ ɡ Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š h Nasals: m mʔ n nʔ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV Comments: SOV GN POSS-N

~~Number:~~ 1504: Language: Male; Location: Ethiopia; Population: 12,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: South; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1505: Language: Oyda; Location: Ethiopia; Population: 3,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: Central; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1506: Language: Ometo Alternate Name: Walamo, Gamo Dialect: Gofa; Location: SW Ethiopia (NE Gemu Gofa); Population: 908,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: Central Grammar: GD: Moreno, Martino Mario 1938. Introduzione alla lingua ometo. Rome: A. Mondadori.; Other Sources: Ohman, Walter A., et al. 1976. "Three Other Ethiopian Languages," in LE. LA; Consonant system: p pʔ t tʔ k kʔ ʔ b d ɗ̣ ɡ tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s sʔ š h m n l r Stops: p pʔ b t tʔ d ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s sʔ š h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: diphthongs; Noun; Number: s p (pl forms not normally used); Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1507: Language: Ometo Alternate Name: Walamo, Wolaytta Dialect: Kullo; Location: SW Ethiopia (S Kefa); Population: 908.000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: Central Grammar: Allan, Edward J. 1976. "Kullo," in NSLE, 324-50.; Consonant system: t tʔ k kʔ ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ ts tsʔ č ɡ̌ f s š h z m n l r Stops: b ɓ t tʔ d ɗ k kʔ ɡ ɠ ʔ Affricates: ts tsʔ č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: (v̄) Diphthongs: ai oi aw; Syllable: (C)(G)V(C) (no CGVC); Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6 politeness: 2 respectful; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1508: Language: Zayse; Location: SW Ethiopia (SE Gemu Gofa); Population: 21,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East; Other Sources: Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue Sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.; Consonant system: p t k kʔ ʔ b d dʔ ɡ tsʔ č čʔ ɸ f s š h z ž m n nʔ l r Stops: p b t d dʔ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ Fricatives: ɸ f s z š ž h Nasals: m n nʔ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ē ā ō; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV AN DN POSS-N

~~Number:~~ 1509: Language: Zergulla; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1510: Language: Ganjule; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1511: Language: Gidiccho; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1512: Language: Gatsame Alternate Name: Kachama; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1513: Language: Koyra Alternate Name: Koorete; Location: SW Ethiopia (W Sidamo); Population: 5,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1514: Language: Beja Alternate Name: Bedauye, Bedawi; Location: NE Sudan (N Kassala); Population: 100,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Beja Dictionary: Reinisch, Leo. 1985. Wörterbuch der Bedauye-Sprache. Vienna. Grammar: GD: Roper, E. M. 1928. Tu Bedawiɛ. Hertford, England: Stephen Austin & Sons. Hudson, Richard A. 1976. "Beja," in NSLE, 97-132.; Other Sources: LA; Consonant system: t̪ ṭʔ k kʷ ʔ b d̪ ḍ ɡ ɡʷ ɡ̌ f s̪ šʔ (x) h (z̪) (ɣ) m n̪ l r Stops: b t̪ d̪ ṭʔ ḍ k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ ʔ Affricates: ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ (z̪) šʔ (x) (ɣ) h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(t); Tones: hi-lev hi-fall; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SOV AN/(NA) GN/(NG) DN/(ND) NUM-N/(N-NUM) POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1515: Language: Awngi Alternate Name: Awiya; Location: W Ethiopia (SC Gojam); Population: 50,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central; Other Sources: Hetzron, Robert. 1978. "The Nominal System of Awngi (Southern Agaw)," BSOAS 41, 121-41. LA; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ f s š χ z ʁ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š χ ʁ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cʷ k ɡ χ ʁ ŋ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e (æ) Central Vowels: (ɨ) a Back Vowels: u o; Tones: hi mid lo fall Stress: normally penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6 politeness: 2 & 3; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1516: Language: Xamir Alternate Name: Khamir; Location: N Ethiopia (W Elo); Population: 5,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1517: Language: Kemant Alternate Name: Falasha, Qimant; Location: W Ethiopia (S Begemdir and Simen); Population: 17,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central Grammar: GD: Conti Rossini, Carlo. 1912. La langue des kemant en abyssinie. Vienna: Alfred Hölder. Appleyard, D. L. 1975. "A Descriptive Outline of Kemant," BSOAS 38, 316-50.; Consonant system: t (tʔ) k kʷ (kʔ) b d ɡ ɡʷ (č) (čʔ) ɡ̌ f s š x xʷ z ɣ ɣʷ m n ŋ ŋʷ l ɾ Stops: b t (tʔ) d k kʷ (kʔ) ɡ ɡʷ Affricates: (č) (čʔ) ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š x xʷ ɣ ɣʷ Nasals: m n ŋ ŋʷ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1518: Language: Bilin Alternate Name: Bilen; Location: NW Ethiopia (W Eritrea); Population: 32,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central; Other Sources: Palmer, F. R. 1957. "The Verb in Bilin," BSOAS 19, 131-59. Palmer, F. R. 1958. "The Noun in Bilin", BSOAS 21, 376-91. LA; Consonant system: t tʔ k kʷ kʔ kʔʷ q qʷ ʔ b d ɡ ɡʷ č čʔ ɡ̌ m n ŋ ŋʷ l r Stops: b t tʔ d k kʷ kʔ kʔʷ ɡ ɡʷ q qʷ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Nasals: m n ŋ ŋʷ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a Back Vowels: u o Stress: Some, but not all, words have a prominent syllable [= hi pitch + stress]; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f [sg only] Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN/NA NG DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1519: Language: Xamta Alternate Name: Xamtanga; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1520: Language: Burji; Location: SW Ethiopia (SE Gemu Gofa); Population: 15,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Highland; Other Sources: Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.; Consonant system: p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b (ɓ) d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ š h m n̪ (ñ) l̪ r Stops: p pʔ b (ɓ) t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ (ñ) Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun
Number: s (p) (only a few plurals exist): Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1521: Language: Sidamo; Location: SW Ethiopia (N Sidamo); Population: 850,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Highland Grammar: GD: Moreno, Martino Mario. 1940. Manuale di Sidamo. Rome: A Mondadori. Cerulli, Enrico. 1936. La lingua e la storia dei Sidamo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.; Other Sources: Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77. LA.; Consonant system: pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ š h m n̪ l̪ r ɾ̣ Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p (pl seldom used); Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1522: Language: Gedeo Alternate Name: Derasa; Location: S Ethiopia (N Sidamo); Population: 250,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Highland; Other Sources: Cerulli, Enrico. 1936. La lingua e la storia dei Sidamo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente. Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.; Consonant system: pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ š h m n̪ l̪ r ɾ̣ Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r ɾ̣ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1523: Language: Kambata Alternate Name: Kaambata; Location: SW Ethiopia (S Shewa); Population: 290,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Highland; Other Sources: Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.; Consonant system: pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ š h z̪ m n̪ l̪ r̪ Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r̪ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6 politeness: 3; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1524: Language: Hadiyya; Location: C Ethiopia (Arusi ); Population: 700,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Highland; Other Sources: Bender, Marvin L. 1976. "Two Cushitic Languages," in LE. Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.; Consonant system: pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ š h m n̪ l̪ r Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ š h Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6 politeness: 3 polite; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1525: Language: Yaaku Alternate Name: Mogogodo; Location: C Kenya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Yaakuan-Dullay; Other Sources: Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. "The Mogogodo, a Forgotten Cushitic People," JAL 2, 29-43.; Consonant system: p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ s š h z m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: s z š h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Nc ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all

~~Number:~~ 1526: Language: Harso Dialect: Bussa; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Yaakuan-Dullay; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1527: Language: Gawwada; Location: SW Ethiopia (Gemu Gofa); Population: 26,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Yaakuan-Dullay Grammar: Black, Paul. 1976. "Werizoid," in NSLE, 222-31.; Consonant system: p t tʔ k kʔ q ʔ ɓ ɗ č čʔ m n ñ l r Stops: p ɓ t tʔ ɗ k kʔ q ʔ Affricates: č čʔ Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV NG N-NUM

~~Number:~~ 1528: Language: Tsamay Alternate Name: Tsamai; Location: SW Ethiopia (S Gemu Gofa); Population: 7,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Yaakuan-Dullay; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1529: Language: Birale Alternate Name: Ongota; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Yaakuan-Dullay; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1530: Language: Afar Alternate Name: Qafar; Location: Ethiopia; Population: 1.6 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Afar-Saho Grammar: Bliese, Loren. 1976. "Afar," in NSLE, 133-65.; Other Sources: Hayward, R. J. 1974. "The Segmental Phonemes of 'Afar,' " BSOAS 37, 385-406. Morin, Didier. 1977. "Le nom en afar du sud," BSOAS 40, 354-70.; Consonant system: t̪ k b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ m n̪ l ɾ Stops: b t̪ d̪ ɗ̣ k ɡ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 4 (3 + very far) + ref Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1531: Language: Saho; Location: Eritrea; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Afar-Saho; Consonant system:; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6

~~Number:~~ 1532: Language: Dasenech Alternate Name: Dhaasanac, Galeba; Location: SW Ethiopia (S Gemu Gofa); Population: 18,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana Grammar: Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. 1976. "Dasenech," in NSLE, 196-221.; Other Sources: Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. 1974. "Notes on the Structure of Galab," BSOAS 37, 407-38. LA; Consonant system: t k ʔ b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ č ɡ̌ f s š h ð m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ɠ ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f ð s š h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: Ī ɛ̄ ā ʋ̄ ɔ̄ Modified Vowels: vowel harmony Diphthongs: iɛ uɔ; Syllable: (C)V(C); Tones: hi lo hi-fall lo-ris; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3 6 Independent third-person pronouns do not exist in the subject paradigm. In case of ambiguity words like 'man,' 'woman,' 'wife,' 'girl,' 'people,' etc. are used.; Syntax: SOV NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1533: Language: Elmolo; Location: Kenya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1534: Language: Arbore; Location: SW Ethiopia (S Gemu Gofa); Population: 2,500; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1535: Language: Bayso; Location: SW Ethiopia (N Sidamo); Population: 500; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana; Other Sources: Hayward, R. J. 1978-79. "Bayso Revisited: Some Preliminary Linguistic Observations - I & II," BSOAS 41: 539-70 & 42: 101-32.; Consonant system: pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s š h (z) m (ʔm) n ʔn l ʔl ɾ ʔɾ Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s (z) š h Nasals: m (ʔm) n ʔn Laterals: l ʔl Vibrants: ɾ ʔɾ Modified Consonants: v̄ all but h and cʔ Glides: j w (ʔw); Vowel system: Front Vowels: i ɛ Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: (ṽ); Noun
Number: s P p P=paucal (2-6): Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV NA/(AN [when no other modifier is present]) GN/NG DN N-NUM N-POSS D+N+Num+A; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1536: Language: Rendille; Location: NC Kenya (N Eastern); Population: 15,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana; Other Sources: Heine, Bernd. 1978. "The Sam Languages: A History of Rendille, Boni and Somali," AFL 6:2, 1-93. Oomen, Antoinette. 1978. "Focus in the Rendille Clause," SAL 9, 35-65.; Consonant system: t̪ k b d̪ ḍ ɡ č m n̪ l r Stops: b t̪ d̪ ḍ k ɡ Affricates: č Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all ?; Tones: hi mid lo; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG/(GN) ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1537: Language: Somali; Location: Somalia; Population: 2 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana Dictionary: Abraham, R. C. 1964. Somali-English Dictionary. London: Univ of London Press. Abraham, R. C. 1967. English-Somali Dictionary. London: Univ of London Press. Philibert, Christophe. 1976. Petit lexique somali-français. Paris: Klincksieck. Grammar: Kirk, J. W. C. 1905. A Grammar of the Somali Language. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. [Reprented 1969 by Gregg International, Farnsborough, England] Moreno, Martino Mario. 1955. Il somalo della Somalia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato. Pia, John Joseph. 1965. Somali Sounds and Inflections. Bloomington: Indiana Univ Diss.; TextBooks: Beli C. R. V. 1953. The Somali Language. London: Longmans, Green & Co. Pia, J. Joseph, Paul D. Black and M. I. Samater. 1966. Beginning in Somali. Syracuse: Program of Eastern African Studies, Syracuse Univ.; Other Sources: Armstrong, Lilias E. 1934. The Phonetic Structure of Somali. Berlin. [Reprinted 1964 by Gregg Press, Ridgewood, N.J.]; Consonant system: t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ ɡ̌ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: b t̪ d̪ ɗ̣ k ɡ q ʔ Affricates: ɡ̌ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but q ɡ̌ s χ ʕ h Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Modified Vowels: vowel harmony Diphthongs: ǝj ǝw; Tones: hi mid lo fall; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 3 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4ie 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV NA GN/NG ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1538: Language: Aweer Alternate Name: Boni; Location: Kenya; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana; Other Sources: Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. 1979. "Entlehnung morphonemischer regeln im Boni," SUGIA 1, 93-108.; Consonant system: t (tʔ) k (kʔ) ʔ b (bʔ) d dʔ (ɟ) ɡ ɡʔ č (čʔ) ɡ̌ f s š h m n ñ ŋ l r Stops: b (bʔ) t (tʔ) d dʔ (ɟ) k (kʔ) ɡ ɡʔ ʔ Affricates: č (čʔ) ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s š h Nasals: m n ñ ŋ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Nasal Vowels: ṽ all v̄̃ all (ã ã̄ only in loanwords); Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6 (verb suffixes)

~~Number:~~ 1539: Language: Oromo; Location: WC Ethiopia (E Welega); Population: 7 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Oromoid Dictionary: Foot, Edwin C. 1913. A Galla-English, English-Galla Dictionary. Cambridge. [Reprinted 1968 by Gregg Press, Ridgewood, N.J.] Grammar: Gragg, Gene. 1976. "Oromo of Wellegga," in NSLE, 166-95. Bender, Marvin Lionel and Mulugeta Eteffa. 1976. "Galla," in LE, 130-48.; TextBooks: Launhardt, Johannes. 1973. Guide to Learning the Oromo Language. Addis Ababa.; Other Sources: Andrzejewski, B. W. 1957. "Some Preliminary Observations on the Borana Dialect of Galla," BSOAS 19, 354-74. Bender, Marvin L., et al. 1976. "Two Cushitic Languages," in LE. LA; Consonant system: (p) pʔ t tʔ k k ʔ b d ɗ̣ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s š (x) h (v) (z) m n ñ l r Stops: (p) pʔ b t tʔ d ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f (v) s (z) š (x) h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō; Syllable: (C)V(C) Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p (plural forms seldom used); Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS N+A+D; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1540: Language: Bussa; Location: Ethiopia; Population: 1,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Oromoid; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1541: Language: Gidole Alternate Name: Dirasha; Location: SW Ethiopia (SE Gemu Gofa); Population: 5,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Oromoid; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1542: Language: Konso Alternate Name: Komso; Location: SW Ethiopia (SE Gemu Gofa); Population: 60,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Oromoid; Other Sources: E; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1543: Language: Dahalo Alternate Name: Sanye; Location: SE Kenya (S Northeastern); Population: 3,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Southern: Dahalo; Other Sources: Elderkin, E. Derek. 1976. "Southern Cushitic," in NSLE, 279-97. Heine, Bernd. 1978. "The Sam Languages: A History of Rendille, Boni and Somali," AFL 6:2, 1-93. Tucker, A. N., M. A. Bryan and James Woodburn. 1977. "The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison," in Zur Sprachgeschicte und Ethnohistorie in Africa, ed. by W. Möhlig, F. Rottland and B. Heine, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer, 300-22.; Consonant system: p pʔ mph t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ŋk ʔ ɓ mb d̪ ɗ nd ɡ ŋɡ ts tl tlh č dz ɡ̌ f s ħ ɦ β v ɣ ʕ m n̪ ñ l r Stops: p pʔ mph ɓ mb t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ nd k kʔ ŋk ɡ ŋɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz tl tlh č ɡ̌ Fricatives: f β v s ɣ ħ ʕ ɦ Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Clicks: / n/ /ʔ Modified Consonants: Glides: j w; Vowel system: i u e o a Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄; Syllable: (C)V(N); Tones: hi lo; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: POST

~~Number:~~ 1544: Language: Ma'a; Location: NE Tanzania (Tanga); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Southern: Ma'a; Other Sources: Elderkin, E. Derek. 1976. "Southern Cushitic," in NSLE, 279-97.; Consonant system: t k ʔ b d ɟ ɡ f s š x h β m n l r Stops: b t d ɟ k ɡ ʔ Fricatives: β f s š x h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ n Nc Glides: w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o; Syllable: (C)V(C); Noun; Number: s p; Noun Classes: nc; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3 6; Syntax: SVO NA N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1545: Language: Asa; Location: Tanzania; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Southern: Rift; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1546: Language: Kw'adza; Location: Tanzania; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Southern: Rift; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1547: Language: Iraqw; Location: NE Tanzania (Arusha); Population: 111,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Southern: Rift; Other Sources: Whiteley, W. H. 1958. A Short Description of Item Categories in Iraqw. Kampala: East African Institute of Social Research. Whiteley, W. H. 1960. "The Verbal Radical in Iraqw," ALS 1, 79-95. Elderkin, E. Derek. 1976. "Southern Cushitic," in NSLE, 279-97.; Consonant system: p t k kʷ q qʷ ʔ b ɓ d (ɗ) ɡ ɡʷ tsʔ tl m n ŋ ŋʷ l ɬ r Stops: p b ɓ t d (ɗ) k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ q qʷ ʔ Affricates: tsʔ tl Nasals: m n ŋ ŋʷ Laterals: l ɬ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ s Nc ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄; Syllable: (C)V(C) Nˈ; Tones: hi lo (ris) (fall) downdrift; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3 6; Syntax: SOV NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1548: Language: Alagwa Alternate Name: Alawa; Location: NC Tanzania (Arusha); Population: 13,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Southern: Rift; Other Sources: LA; Consonant system: Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3 6; Syntax: N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1549: Language: Burunge; Location: NC Tanzania (N Dodoma); Population: 11,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Southern: Rift; Other Sources: LA WALS E; Consonant system: Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Noun; Number: s p Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3 6; Syntax: SOV[already introduced object]/SVO[newly introduced object] N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1550: Language: Proto-Semitic; Location: Arabia; Population: c. 4,000 B.C.; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic Grammar: Gray, Louis H. 1934. Introduction of Semitic Comparative Linguistics. New York: Columbia Univ Press. Moscati, Sabatino, et al. 1964. An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ b d ɡ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t θ ð s Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: CV(C); Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5d 5mf 3mf 6d 6mf; Syntax: N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1551: Language: Eblaic; Location: N Syria; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1552: Language: Akkadian; Location: E Iraq; Population: c. 2000 B.C.; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: East Dictionary: Gelb, I. J. 1957. Glossary of Old Akkadian. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press. Grammar: Reiner, Erica. 1966. A Linguistic Analysis of Akkadian. The Hague: Mouton. Castellino, G. R. 1970. Grammatica accadica introduttiva. Rome: Istituto di Studi del Vicino Oriente. Lipin, L. A. 1973. The Akkadian Language. Moscow: Nauka.; Other Sources: Gelb, Ignace J. 1969. Sequential Reconstruction of Proto-Akkadian. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ b d ɡ s š x z m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ Fricatives: s z š x Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t s Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SOV NA NG ND NUM-N/N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1553: Language: Old Aramaic; Location: Syria; Population: c. 900 B.C .; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Aramaic Grammar: Degen, Rainer. 1969. Altaramäische Grammatik. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.; Consonant system: p t̪ k ʔ b d̪ ɡ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cɒ t k θ ð s Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū Diphthongs: ai aw; Syllable: CV(C)(C); Noun
Number: s d p`: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: VSO NA NG ND N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1554: Language: Syriac; Location: Turkey; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Aramaic; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1555: Language: Assyrian Dialect: Mandaic; Location: N Iraq; Population: 500,000 (extinct); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Aramaic Dictionary: Drower, E. S and R. Macuch. 1963. A Mandaic Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Grammar: Macuch, Rudolf. 1965. Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.; Other Sources: Yamauchi, Edwin M. 1967. Mandaic Incantation Texts. New Haven: American Oriental Society.; Consonant system: p t k q b d ɡ (č) (ɡ̌) m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q Affricates: (č) (ɡ̌) Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t s Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but æ ǝ Diphthongs: ei eu ai ou oi au Stress: non-phonemic (penult/antepenult); Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 *3mf *6mf; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1556: Language: Assyrian Dialect: Syriac; Location: NE Syria; Population: 500,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Aramaic Dictionary: Oraham, A. 1943. Assyrian-English Dictionary. Chicago. Costaz, Louis. n.d. Dictionnaire syriaque-français New York: Altai Press. Grammar: GD: Garbell, Irene. 1965. The Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Persian Azerbaijan. The Hague: Mouton. Costaz, Louis. 1955. Grammaire syriaque. Beruit: Imprimérie Catholique. Tsereteli, K. G.1964. Sovremennyj assirijskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka. Arsanis, G. V. 1968. "Sovremennyj assirijskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 489-507. Jacobi, Heidi. 1973. Grammatik des thumischen Neuaramäisch. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner. Sara, Solomon I. 1974. A Description of Modern Chaldean. The Hague: Mouton.; TextBooks: Robinson, Theodore H. 1962. Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.; Other Sources: Hetzron, Robert. 1969. "The Morphology of the Verb in Modern Syriac (Christian Colloquial of Urmi), JAOS 89, 112-27. Solomon, Zomaya S. and Robert K. Headley, Sr. 1973. "The Phonology of Modern Spoken Syriac," AL 15, 136-47.; Consonant system: ph th kh (q) ʔ b d ɡ č ɡ̌ (f) θ s š x h (v) ð z (ž) ɣ m n l ɾ Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ (q) ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Fricatives: (f) (v) θ ð s z š (ž) x ɣ h Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t ð s l ɾ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ai au; Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 *3mf *6; Syntax: VSO/SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1557: Language: Aramaic Alternate Name: Neo-Aramaic; Location: Lebanon; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Aramaic; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1558: Language: Classical Hebrew; Location: Israel; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: North: Northwest Grammar: Lambert, Mayer. 1972. Traité de grammaire hébraı̈que. Hildesheim: H. A. Gerstenberg. Blau, Joshua. 1976. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; TextBooks: Davidson, A. B.1966. An Introductory Hebrew Grammar. Edinburgh: T. T. Clark.; Consonant system: p t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ m n l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cɒ t s Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: aj aw Stress: mostly final (sometimes penult); Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf *3mf *6mf; Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [1]) N-POSS Num+N+A+D; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1559: Language: Hebrew; Location: Israel; Population: 2.5 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: North: Northwest Dictionary: Sivan, Reuven and Edward A. Levenston. 1975. The New Bantam-Megiddo Hebrew & English Dictionary. New York: Bantam.; TextBooks: Rosén, Haiim B. 1966. A Textbook of Israeli Hebrew. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press. Mansoor, Menahem. 1972. Modern Hebrew. Madison. Harrison, R. K. n.d. Teach Yourself Hebrew. London: English Universities Press.; Other Sources: Chayen, M. J. 1973. The Phonetics of Modern Hebrew. The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p t̪ k (q) ʔ b d̪ ɡ t̪s ʁ m n̪ l Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ (q) ʔ Affricates: t̪s Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: ʁ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but tɒ sɒ Glides: j; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Stress: mostly final (sometimes penult); Noun
Number: s (d) p (dual only used for body parts and things which come in pairs): Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [1]) N-POSS Num+N +A +D; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1560: Language: Phoenician; Location: Syria; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: North: Northwest; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1561: Language: Ugaritic; Location: N Syria; Population: c. 1400 B.C.; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: North: Northwest Grammar: GD: Gorden, Cyrus H. 1965. Ugaritic Textbook. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute.; Consonant system: p t k q ʔ b d ɡ m n l r Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cɒ t s z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: ī ā ū Modified Vowels: vowel harmony; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2mf 5d 5 3mf 6d 6mf; Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N/N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1562: Language: Moabite; Location: Jordan; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: North: Northwest; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1563: Language: Classical Arabic; Location: Saudi Arabia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Abcarius, J. John. 1974. English-Arabic Reader's Dictionary. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Grammar: Blachère, Régis. 1958. Éléments de l'arabe classique. Paris: Maisoneuve et Larose. Yushmanov, N. V. 1961. The Structure of the Arabic Language. Washigton, D.C.: CAL. Bateson, Mary Catherine. 1967. Arabic Language Handbook. Wahington, D.C.: CAL. Fischer, Wolfdietrich. 1972. Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; TextBooks: Ani, Salman H. al- and Jacob Y. Shammas. 1969. A Basic Course of Literary Arabic. Montreal: Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill Univ. Tritton, Arthur S. 1970. Arabic. London: English Universities Press. Bishai, Wilson B. 1971. Concise Grammar of Literary Arabic: A New Approach. Dubuque, IA: Kendall & Hunt.; Consonant system: t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ̌ m n l r Stops: b t̪ d̪ k q ʔ Affricates: ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? cɒ t d ð s (z) (l) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: aj aw; Syllable: CV(C) Stress: non-phonemic (last long syllable/initial); Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5d 5mf 3mf 6d 6mf; Syntax: VSO NA NG DN NUM-N/(N-NUM [1,2]) N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1564: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Saudi Arabian; Location: Saudi Arabia; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Grammar: Schreiber, Giselher. 1970. Der arabische Dialekt von Mekka. Münster: Univ of Münster Diss.; Other Sources: Ingham, Bruce. 1971. "Some Characteristics of Meccan Speech," BSOAS 34, 273-97. Bakalla, M. H. 1973. The Phonology and Morphology of Meccan Arabic. London: Univ of London Diss. E; Consonant system: t̪ k (q) (ʔ) b d̪ ɡ ɡ̌ m n l r Stops: b t̪ d̪ k ɡ (q) (ʔ) Affricates: ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all cɒ t d s z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō; Syllable: CV(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1565: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Palestinian; Location: Israel; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Elihai, Yohanan. 1973. Dictionnaire de l'arabe parlé palestinien. Paris: Klincksieck. Grammar: Driver, Godfrey Rolles. 1925. A Grammar of the Colloquial Arabic of Syria and Palestine. London: Probsthain and Co.; TextBooks: Kapliwatzky, Jochanan. 1968. Colloquial Arabic. Jerusalem: Rubin Mass.; Consonant system: t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ̌ m n l r Stops: b t̪ d̪ k q ʔ Affricates: ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cɒ t d s z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I ɛ æ Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N/(N-NUM [1]) N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1566: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Gulf; Location: United Arab Emirates; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Grammar: Qafisheh, Hamdi A. 1977. A Short Reference Grammar of Gulf Arabic. Tucson: Univ of Arizona Press.; TextBooks: Qafisheh, Hamdi A. 1975. A Basic Course in Gulf Arabic. Tucson: Univ of Arizona Press.; Consonant system: (p) t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ m n l̪ ɾ Stops: (p) b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t ð s l Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ) Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄ Diphthongs: iw ij aw āw aj āj uw; Syllable: (C)CV(C)(C) (no CCVCC) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N/(N-NUM [1,2]) N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1567: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Iraqi; Location: Iraq; Population: 50 million ( 10 million); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Clarity, Beverly E., Karl Stowasser and Ronald G. Wolf, eds. 1964. A Dictionary of Iraqi: English-Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press. Grammar: Erwin, Wallace M. 1963. A Short Reference Grammar of Iraqi Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetwon Univ Press.; TextBooks: Erwin, Wallace M. 1969. A Basic Course in Iraqi Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.; Other Sources: Ani, Salman H. al-. 1970. Arabic Phonology. The Haque: Mouton.; Consonant system: (p) t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ (ɡ) č ɡ̌ m n̪ l̪ ɾ Stops: (p) b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ) q ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ all cɒ (p) (b) t (f) ð s (z) (m) (l) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I æ Back Vowels: ʋ (o) Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: aj āj aw āw iw ēw; Syllable: (C)CV(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic (last long syllable/penult in 2-syllable words; antepenult in words of 3 or more syllables); Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N/(N-NUM [1,2]) N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1568: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Lebanese; Location: Lebanon; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite; TextBooks: Kassab, Jean. 1970. Manuel du parler arabe moderne au moyen-orient. Paris: Paul Geuthner.; Consonant system: t k (q) ʔ b d m n l r Stops: b t d k (q) ʔ Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all cɒ t d s z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ; Syllable: CV(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO/SVO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1569: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Syrian; Location: Syria; Population: 50 million (7 million); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Stowasser, Karl and Moukhtar Ani. 1964. A Dictionary of Syrian Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press. Grammar: Cowell, Mark W. 1964. A Reference Grammar of Syrian Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press. Grotzfeld, Heinz. 1965. Syrisch-arabische Grammatik. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.; TextBooks: Benedict, Warren C. and Ziad N. Kayyal. 1971. Levantine Arabic Basic Course, 4 vols. Beirut: Foreign Service Institute. Ferguson, Charles A., et al. 1961. Damascus Arabic. Washington, D.C.: CAL.; Consonant system: (p) t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ (ɡ) m n̪ l r Stops: (p) b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ) q ʔ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all cɒ b t d s z m n Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I e æ Central Vowels: (ǝ) Back Vowels: ʋ o Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Stress: last long syllable; otherwise initial; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO/SVO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1570: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Egyptian; Location: Egypt; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Elias, Edward A. 1962. Practical Dictionary of the Colloquial Arabic of the Middle East. Cairo: Elias' Modern Press. Grammar: Tomiche, Nada. 1964. Le parler arabe du Caire. The Hague: Mouton. Khalafallah, Abdelghany A. 1969. A Descriptive Grammar of Saɛi:di: Egyptian Colloquial Arabic. The Hague: Mouton. Wise, Hilary. 1975. A Transformational Grammar of Spoken Egyptian Arabic. Oxford: Blackwell.; TextBooks: Mitchell, T. F. 1962. Collloquial Arabic. London: English Universities Press. Harrell, Richard S., Laila Y. Tewfik and George D. Selim. 1963. Lessons in Colloquial Egyptian Arabic. Washigton, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.; Other Sources: Harrel, Richard S. 1957. The Phonelogy of Colloquial Egyptian Arabic. New York: American Council of Learned Societies.; Consonant system: t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ m n̪ l̪ ɾ Stops: b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ all cɒ t d s z Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I (e) (æ) Back Vowels: ʋ (o) ɑ Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ū ō ɑ̄; Syllable: CV(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic (mostly penult); Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1571: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Cypriot Maronite; Location: Cyprus; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Grammar: Tsiapera, Maria. 1964. A Descriptive Analysis of Cypriot Maronite Arabic. The Hague: Mouton.; Consonant system: p t̪ k ʔ b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: cj p k v z n l cɒ t ð s Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1572: Language: Eastern Arabic Dialect: Chad; Location: Chad; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Roth-Laly, Arlette. 1969-72. Lexique des parlers arabes tchado-soudanais, 4 vols. Paris: CNRS. Grammar: Hagège, Claude. 1973. Profil d'un parler arabe du Tchad. Paris: Paul Geuthner.; TextBooks: Abu Absi, Samir and Andre Sinaud. 1968. Basic Chad Arabic. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Consonant system: t c k ʔ b d ɗ ɟ ɡ ɠ f s š χ h z m n ñ l r Stops: b t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ ɠ ʔ Fricatives: f s z š χ h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ ɟ f r only Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i (e) Central Vowels: ɨ a Back Vowels: u o ɑ Long Vowels: ī ē ɨ̄ ā ū; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA NG ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [1,2]) N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1573: Language: Western Arabic Dialect: Tunisian; Location: Tunisia; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Nicolas, A. 1938. Dictionnaire arabe-français. Idiome tunisien. Tunis: C. Abella.; TextBooks: Inglefield, Patrick L., Kacem Ben-Hamza and Toufik Abida. 1970. Tunisian Arabic Basic Course, 2 vols. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.; Other Sources: Maamouri, Mohamed. 1967. The Phonology of Tunisian Arabic. Ithaca: Cornell Univ Diss.; Consonant system: t k q b d ɡ m n l r Stops: b t d k ɡ q Nasals: m n Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ b t d ð s m l r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ǣ ū Stress: non-phonemic (final/penult); Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1574: Language: Western Arabic Dialect: Algerian; Location: Algeria; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Belkhassem, Ben Sédira. 1954. Dictionnaire français-arabe de la langue parlé en Algérie. Algiers. Grammar: Grand'henry, Jacques. 1976. Les parlers arabes de la région du mzab. Leiden: E. J. Brill.; TextBooks: Tapiéro, Norbert. 1971. Manuel d'arabe algérien moderne. Paris: Klincksieck.; Consonant system: t̪ k q (ʔ) b d̪ ɡ ɡ̌ m n̪ l r Stops: b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q (ʔ) Affricates: ɡ̌ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t d s z l r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i Central Vowels: (ǝ) a Back Vowels: u Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ej ou; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic (final/penult); Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: VSO/SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1575: Language: Western Arabic Dialect: Moroccan; Location: Morocco; Population: 50 million (17 million ); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Harrell, Richard S., ed. 1966. A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic: Arabic-English. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press. Sobelman, Harvey and Richard S. Harrell, eds. 1963. A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic: English-Moroccan. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press. Grammar: Harrell, Richard S. 1962. A Short Reference Grammar of Moroccan Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press. Marçais, P. 1977. Esquisse grammaticale de l'arabe maghrébin. Paris: Maisonneuve.; TextBooks: Harrell, Richard S. 1965. A Basic Course in Moroccan Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press. Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1973. An Introduction to Moroccan Arabic. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies.; Consonant system: (p) t̪ k q ʔ b d̪ ɡ m n̪ l̪ ɾ Stops: (p) b t̪̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but z cɒ t d s ɾ (b z m l) cʷ b k ɡ q f χ ʁ m Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: e Central Vowels: ɐ Back Vowels: o Long Vowels: ī ā ū Diphthongs: aj aw ej ew Stress: non-phonemic (final/penult); Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def indef; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO/(VSO) NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS D+N+A; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1576: Language: Western Arabic Dialect: Mauritanian; Location: Mauritania; Population: 50 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Grammar: Cohen, David. 1963. Le dialecte arabe hassaniya de Mauritanie. Paris: Klincksieck.; TextBooks: Leriche, A. 1952. Cours de langue maure. Saint Louis: IFAN.; Consonant system: t̪ c k qɒ ʔ b d̪ ɟ ɡ m n̪ ñ l̪ r Stops: b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ qɒ ʔ Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cɒ t d q ð s z l r (b ɡ f m n) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: I Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ Back Vowels: ʋ Long Vowels: ī ā ū; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s d p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS

~~Number:~~ 1577: Language: Maltese; Location: Malta; Population: 50 million (325,000); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite Dictionary: Busuttil, Edgar D. 1941. Kalepin (dizjunarju) malti-ingliz. Valletta, Malta: St. Joseph Institute. Grammar: Aquilina, Joseph. 1959. The Structure of Maltese. Malta: Royal Univ of Malta.; TextBooks: Aquilina, Joseph. 1965. Teach Yourself Maltese. London: English Universities Press.; Other Sources: Borg, Alexander. 1973. "The Segmental Phonemes of Maltese," Linguistics 109, 5-11. Fenech, Edward. 1978. Contemporary Journalistic Maltese. Leiden: E. J. Brill.; Consonant system: p t̪ k ʔ b d̪ ɡ ts č dz ɡ̌ m n̪ l r Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but v Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all Diphthongs: ie ew iw ej aj aw Stress: non-phonemic; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def (indef); Pronouns: 1 4 2 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1578: Language: Epigraphic South Arabian; Location: Yemen; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1579: Language: South Arabian Dialect: Shahari; Location: S Oman; Population: 426,000 (5,000); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South; Other Sources: Johnstone, T. M. 1975. " The Modern South Arabian Languages," AFL 1, 93-121.; Consonant system: t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ ɡ̌ f θ s̪ s̪ʔ š sʔ ð ðʔ z̪ m n l ʔl ɬ ɮ r ʔr Stops: b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: ɡ̌ Fricatives: f θ ð ʔð s̪ s̪ʔ z̪ š sʔ Nasals: m n Laterals: l ʔl ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r ʔr Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e ɛ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o ɔ Nasal Vowels: ṽ all ?; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2mf 5d 5mf 3mf 6d 6mf; Syntax: NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1580: Language: South Arabian Dialect: Harsusi; Location: South Yemen; Population: 426,000 (400,000); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South Dictionary: Johnstone, T. M. 1977. Harsusi Lexicon. London: Oxford Univ Press.; Other Sources: Johnstone, T. M. 1975. "The Modern South Arabian Languages," AFL 1, 93-121.; Consonant system: t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ ɡ̌ f θ s̪ s̪ʔ š šʔ ð ʔð z̪ m n l ʔl ɬ ɮ r ʔr Stops: b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: ɡ̌ Fricatives: f θ ð ʔð s̪ s̪ʔ z̪ š šʔ Nasals: m n Laterals: l ʔl ɬ ɮ Vibrants: r ʔr Glides: j w Central Vowels: ǝ a Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō Diphthongs: aj aw ej ew ēw īw ōj ūj; Noun
Number: s (d) p: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4d 4 2mf 5d 5mf 3mf 6d 6mf; Syntax: NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1581: Language: Geez; Location: N Ethiopia; Population: extinct; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: North; Other Sources: Bender, Marvin L. 1976. "Two Ethio-Semitic Languages," in LE. LA; Consonant system: p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ kʷ kʔʷ ʔ b d̪ d̪ʔ ɡ ɡʷ f s̪ s̪ʔ m n̪ l̪ r Stops: p pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ d̪ʔ k kʔ ɡ kʷ kʔʷ ɡʷ ʔ Fricatives: f s̪ s̪ʔ Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but cʔ ʔ h Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ ? Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: VSO AN/NA NG N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP Comments: Geez is still used as a liturgical language by the Orthodox church.

~~Number:~~ 1582: Language: Tigre Dialect: Mensa; Location: NW Eritrea; Population: 117,000; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: North Dictionary: Da Milano, Prospero Maria. 1936. Vocabulario pratico: italiano-tigray-amarico. Milan: Genio. Littman, Enno and Maria Höfner. 1962 Wörterbuch der Tigrè-Sprache: Tigrè-Deutsch-Englisch. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner. Grammar: Leslau, Wolf. 1945. "Grammatical Sketches in Tigré (North Ethiopic), Dialect of Mensa," JAOS 65, 164-203.; TextBooks: Camperio, Manfredo. 1936. Manuale pratico della lingua tigrè con due dizionarietti. Milan: V. Hoepli.; Other Sources: Palmer, Frank R. 1962. The Morphology of the Tigre Noun. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, Univ of London.; Consonant system: pʔ t tʔ k qʔ ʔ b d ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s sʔ m n ñ l r Stops: pʔ b t tʔ d k ɡ qʔ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s sʔ Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e æ Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Modified Vowels: vowel harmony Stress: VH; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SOV AN/NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP

~~Number:~~ 1583: Language: Tigrinya; Location: N Ethiopia (W Tigre); Population: 5.1 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: North Dictionary: Bassano, Francesco de. 1918. Vocabolario tigray-italiano e repertorio italiano-tigray. Rome: C. de Luigi. Grammar: Leslau, Wolf. 1941. Documents tigrigna. Paris: Klincksieck.; TextBooks: Conti Rossini, Carlo. 1940. Lingua tigrina. Milan: Mondadori.; Other Sources: Bender, Marvin L., et al. 1976. "Two Ethio-Semitic Languages," in LE, 99-199.; Consonant system: (pʔ) t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ kʷ kʔʷ ʔ b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ (č) (čʔ) (ɡ̌) f s̪ s̪ʔ m n̪ (ñ) l̪ r Stops: (pʔ) b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ kʷ kʔʷ ɡʷ ʔ Affricates: (č) (čʔ) (ɡ̌) Fricatives: f s̪ s̪ʔ Nasals: m n̪ (ñ) Laterals: l̪ Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ ħ ʕ h cʷ k kʔ ɡ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ Modified Vowels: vowel harmony Diphthongs: æj ɑj aj æw ɑw oj; Noun
Number: s d: Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SOV AN GN/NG DN/(ND) NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/(POST)

~~Number:~~ 1584: Language: Amharic; Location: NC Ethiopia; Population: 8 million; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Transversal Dictionary: Leslau, Wolf. 1976. Concise Amharic Dictionary. Berkeley: Univ of California Press. Grammar: Leslau, Wolf. 1969. An Amharic Reference Grammar. Los Angeles: Dept. of Near Eastern and African Languages, UCLA. Cohen, Marcel. 1970. Traité de langue amharique. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.; TextBooks: Leslau, Wolf. 1968. Amharic Textbook. Berkeley: Univ of California Press.; Consonant system: (p) (pʔ) t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ b d̪ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ (s̪ʔ) š h z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l ɾ Stops: (p) (pʔ) b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ (s̪ʔ) z̪ š ž h Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: ɾ Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ h cʷ all (k kʔ ɡ most common) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f (sg only) Demonstratives: 2 + ref Articles: def ( indef); Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf politeness: 2 pol & 3 pol; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1585: Language: Argobba; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Transversal; Consonant system:; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6

~~Number:~~ 1586: Language: Harari; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Transversal; Other Sources: E WPF; Consonant system:; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1587: Language: East Gurage Alternate Name: Silt'e Dialect: Harari; Location: EC Ethiopia (NW Harerge); Population: 35,000 (13,000); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Transversal Grammar: Cohen, Marcel. 1931. Études d'éthiopien méridional. Paris: Paul Geuthner. Cerulli, Enrico. 1936. La lingua e la storia di Harar. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.; Other Sources: LA; Consonant system: t tʔ k qʔ ʔ b d ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s š χ h z m n ñ l r Stops: b t tʔ d k ɡ qʔ ʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s z š χ h Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ Diphthongs: ie uo Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def (indef); Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6 politeness: 2; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1588: Language: Gafat; Location: NW Ethiopia; Population: extinct (c. 1950); Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Outer: N-Group Grammar: GD: Leslau, Wolf. 1945. Gafat Documents. New Haven: American Oriental Society.; Consonant system: (pʔ) t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ kʷ kʔʷ b bʷ d̪ ɡ ɡʷ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ s̪ʔ š x h hʷ z̪ ž m n ñ l r Stops: (pʔ) b bʷ t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ kʷ kʔʷ ɡʷ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ s̪ʔ z̪ š ž x h hʷ Nasals: m n ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Modified Vowels: vowel harmony Diphthongs: æj aj ǝj oj æw aw; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5 3mf 6; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1589: Language: Soddo Alternate Name: Kistane; Location: C Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Outer: N-Group; Other Sources: WALS; Consonant system:; Syntax: SOV

~~Number:~~ 1590: Language: Goggot; Location: C Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Outer: N-Group; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1591: Language: Muher; Location: C Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Outer: TT-Group Grammar: Cohen, Marcel. 1931. Études d'éthiopien méridional. Paris: Paul Geuthner.; Consonant system: p t̪ t̪ʔ k qʔ b d̪ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ š ç z̪ ž m n̪ ñ l r Stops: p b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k ɡ qʔ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž ç Nasals: m n̪ ñ Laterals: l Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ all ? Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ǝ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ Stress: non-phonemic; Noun; Number: s p (pl rarely used); Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2; Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN N-NUM N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1592: Language: Masqan; Location: Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Outer: TT-Group; Consonant system:

~~Number:~~ 1593: Language: Central West Gurage Alternate Name: Sebat Bet Gurage Dialect: Chaha; Location: C Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Outer: TT-Group Grammar: Leslau, Wolf. 1950. Ethiopic Documents: Gurage. New York: Viking Fund.; Other Sources: LA; Consonant system: ph pʔ t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ k kh kʔ b d̪ ɡ č čʔ ɡ̌ f s̪ š ç x z̪ ž m n̪ (l̪) r Stops: ph pʔ b t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ k kh kʔ ɡ Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌ Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž ç x Nasals: m n̪ Laterals: (l̪) Vibrants: r Modified Consonants: c̄ cʷ p b k kʔ ɡ f x m cj k kʔ ɡ (t) Glides: j w; Vowel system: Front Vowels: i e Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ ɐ a Back Vowels: u o Long Vowels: v̄ ?; Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C) Stress: penult; Noun; Number: s p; Gender: m f Demonstratives: 2 Articles: def (indef); Pronouns: 1 4 2mf 5mf 3mf 6mf; Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N N-POSS; Prep/Post: PREP/POST

~~Number:~~ 1594: Language: Peripheral West Gurage; Location: C Ethiopia; Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Outer: TT-Group; Consonant system:

© «lexicons.ru», 2012. Автор и владелец - Игорь Константинович Гаршин (см. резюме).
Дочерний веб-проект Сайта Игоря Гаршина
Присылайте, пожалуйста, письма (

) с советами, отзывами, замечаниями и предложениями.

Страница обновлена 11.09.2020