Здесь представлены краткие справки по фонетике и грамматике языков
Ностратической суперсемьи,
взятые с проекта глобальной этимологической базы данных "Вавилонская башня", основанную Сергеем Анатольевичем Старостиным.
Эти сведения будут затем размещаться в каждом праязыковом этимологическом словнике.
Сама же база
по ностратической этимологии составлена С. А. Старостиным по основным ностратическим словарям
(Иллич-Свитыч,
Долгопольский,
Бомхард).
Она включает также ряд новых этимологий, предложенных самим С. А. Старостиным и другими участниками
Московской школы компаративистики.
База находится в довольно сыром состоянии, т. к. в сравнительной фонологии ностратических языков остается еще немало неясных моментов.
Сергей Анатольевич считал, что собственно ностратическими языками (их он называл "евразийскими")
являются все обычно включаемые туда языки, кроме афразийских и эламского.
Здесь же принята концепция не в узком, а в широком смысле - с упомянутыми
эламским
и семито-хамитскими языками.
Всего здесь представлено X языковых систем, происходящих от
праностратического языка,
распределённых по 13 семьям и изолированным языкам:
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Индо-хеттской семьи (Indo-Hittite)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Уральской семьи (Uralic)
Краткие типологические обзоры юкагирских языков (Yukaghir)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Алтайской семьи (Altaic)
Краткие типологические обзор нивхского языка (Gilyak, Nivx, Nivkh)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Чукче-камчатской семьи (Chukchi-Kamchatkan)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Эскимо-алеутской семьи (Eskimo-Aleut)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Дравидической семьи (Dravidian)
Краткий типологический обзор эламитского языка (Elamite)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Картвельской семьи (Kartvelian)
Обзоры типов языков, возможно, входящих в Евразийскую макросемью (этрусский)
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Афразийской семьи (Afro-Asiatic)
В базе, правда, юкагирские языки отнесены к уральским,
а эламский -
к эламо-дравидским (но все остальные дравидские к эламо-дравидским не отнесены).
Сама же база
по ностратической этимологии составлена С. А. Старостиным по основным ностратическим словарям
(Иллич-Свитыч,
Долгопольский,
Бомхард).
Она включает также ряд новых этимологий, предложенных самим С. А. Старостиным и другими участниками московской школы компаративистики.
База находится в довольно сыром состоянии, т. к. в сравнительной фонологии ностратических языков остается еще немало неясных моментов.
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Индо-хеттской семьи
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European
Grammar:
Meillet, A. 1937. Introduction à l'étude des langues indo-européennes. Paris.
Hudson-Williams, T. 1935. A Short Introduction to the Study of çomparative Grammar (Indo-European). Cardiff: Univ of Wales Press.
Other Sources: CTIL 9, 122.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k kʷ ʔ
(b) b̤ d̪ d̪̣ ɡ ɡ̤ ɡʷ ɡ̤ʷ
s h
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p (b) b̤ t̪ d̪ d̪̤ k ɡ ɡ̤ kʷ ɡʷ ɡ̤ʷ ʔ
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cʷ k ɡ ɡ̤
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Diphthongs: ei oi ai eu ou au
Syllable: mˈ nˈ lˈ rˈ
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
*3 *6d *6
Syntax: SOV AN
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Обзоры типологий анатолийских языков
Number: 1647
Language: Hittite
Location: Turkey
Population: extinct (c. 1300 B.C.)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian
Grammar: Sturtevant, Edgar H. 1951. A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. New Haven: Yale Univ Press.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
ts
s x h
ɣ
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: ts
Fricatives: s x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: common(=m+f) neuter
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1648
Language: Palaic
Location: Turkey
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1649
Language: Lydian
Location: Turkey
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1650
Language: Luwian
Location: Turkey
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian
Dictionary: Laroche, Emmanuel. 1959. Dictionnaire de la langue louvite. Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve.
Consonant system:
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: anim inan
Demonstratives: 2
Syntax: SOV AN GN
Number: 1651
Language: Lycian
Location: Turkey
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Anatolian
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Обзоры типологий армянских языков
Number: 1653
Language: Classical Armenian
Alternate Name: Grabar
Location: Armenia
Population: extinct (c. 1300 B.C.)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Armenian
Dictionary: Meillet, A. 1936. Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique. Vienna: Mekhitharistes.
Grammar:
Jensen, Hans. 1959. Altarmenische Grammatik. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
Tumanjan, E. G. 1971. Drevnearmjanskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.
Damme, Dirk van. 1974. A Short Classical Armenian Grammar. Fribourg: Univ Press.
Mann, Stuart E. 1968. An Armenian Historical Grammar in Latin Characters. London: Luzac.
Other Sources: Mann, Stuart E. 1963. Armerian and Indo-European. London: Luzac.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h k kh
b d̪ ɡ
ts tsh č čh
dz ɡ̌
(f) s š x h
v z ž (ɣ)
m n̪
l lɯ
ɾ r
Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ
Affricates: ts tsh dz č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
ɛ ɔ
a
Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Diphthongs: aj aw ea ew iw oj ja eaj iaj
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: VSO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N N-POSS/POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1654
Language: Armenian
Dialect: East
Location: Armenia
Population: 6 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Armenian
Grammar: Tumanjan, E. G. 1966. "Armjanskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 562-98.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
ph pʔ t̪h tʔ kh kʔ
b d̪ ɡ
tsh tsʔ čh čʔ
dz ɡ̌
f s̪ š x h
v z̪ ž ɣ
m n̪
l
ɾ r
Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h tʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ
Affricates: tsh tsʔ dz čh čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST
Number: 1655
Language: Armenian
Dialect: West
Location: E Turkey
Population: 6 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Armenian
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
WALS
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž ɣ
m n
l
ɾ r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: phonemic
Syntax: SOV AN GN
Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST
Обзоры типологий тохарских языков
Number: 1656
Language: Tocharian A
Location: NW China (Turkestan)
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Tocharian
Dictionary:
Windekens, A. J. van. 1941. Lexique étymologique des dialectes tokhariens. Louvain: Muséon.
Grammar: Sieg, Emil and Wilhelm Siegling. 1931. Tocharische Grammatik. Gøttingen: Dandenhoe.
Other Sources:
Windekens, A. J. van. 1944. Morphologie comparée du tokharien. Louvain: Muséon.
Zimmer, Stefan. 1976. Tocharische Bibliographie, 1959-1975. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
Adams, Douglas Q. 1978. "Ablaut and Umlaut in the Tocharian Vowel System, " JAOS 98, 446-50.
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
ts č
s š
m n ñ ŋ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p t̪ c k
Affricates: ts č
Fricatives: s š
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ā ū
Nasal Vowels: ṽ
Noun
Number: s p
Pronouns:
1mf 4
2 5
*3mfn *6mf
Syntax: SOV AN GN
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1657
Language: Tocharian B
Location: NW China (Turkestan)
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Tocharian
Grammar: GD: Krause, Wolfgang and Werner Thomas. 1960, 1964. Tocharisches Elementarbuch, 2 vols. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
Other Sources: Windekens, A. J. van. 1976. Le tocharien confronté avec les autres langues indo-européenes, 2 vols. Louvain: Centre International de Dialectologie Générale.
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
ts č
s š
m n ñ ŋ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p t̪ c k
Affricates: ts č
Fricatives: s š
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj p k ts m
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ā ū
Nasal Vowels: ṽ
Diphthongs: ai oi au āu
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Pronouns:
1mf 4
2 5
*3mfn *6mf
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN POSS-N/N-POSS
Prep/Post: POST
Обзоры типологий арийских языков
Number: 1658
Language: Sanskrit
Dialect: Classical
Location: N India
Population: c. 400 B.C.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic
Dictionary:
Monier-Williams, Monier. 1976. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Apte, Vaman Shivram. 1974. The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Grammar:
Gonda, Jan. 1966. A Concise Elementary Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. University, Alabama: Univ of Alabama Press.
Renou, Louis. 1968. Grammaire sanskrite. Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve.
TextBooks:
Bhandarkar, Ramkrishna Gopal. 1966. First Book of Sanskrit. Bombay: Karnatak.
Allen, W. S. 1953. Phonetics in Ancient India. London: Oxford Univ Press.
Emeneau, M. B. and B. A. van Nooten. 1968. Sanskrit Sandhi and Exercises. Berkeley: Univ of Califonia Press.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh c ch k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ d̤̣ ɟ ɟ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
s̪ ṣ š h
v ɦ
m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
l̪
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ c ch ɟ ɟ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Fricatives: v s̪ ṣ š h ɦ
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au
Syllable: lˈ rˈ
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
*3mfn *6dmfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1659
Language: Sanskrit
Dialect: Vedic
Location: N India
Population: c. 1,000 BC
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic
Grammar: Macdonell, A. A. 1910. Vedic Grammar. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s̪ ṣ š h
v
m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v s̪ ṣ š h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but h l r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au
Syllable: mˈ lˈ rˈ
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
*3mfn *6dmfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV AN GN NUM-N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1660
Language: Sanskrit
Dialect: Pali
Location: India (Bihar)
Population: c. 400 B. C.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic
Grammar:
Higashimoto, Keiki, 1967. An Elementary Grammar of the Pali Language. Tokyo: Research Institute of the Pali Literature, Komazawa Univ.
TextBooks: Warder, A. K. 1974. Introduction to Pali. London: Pali Text Society.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s̪
v ɦ
m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
l̪ ḷ ḷ̤
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v s̪ ɦ
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ḷ ḷ̤
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Stress: non-phonemic
Other Sources: Windfuhr, Gernot L. 1970. "European Gypsy in Iran: A First Report," AL 12, 271-92.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
b d ɡ
č čh
ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z
m n
l
r
Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š x h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
e o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ē ā ō
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Other Sources: Miltner, Vladimı́r. 1965. "The Morphologic Strutcure of a New Indo-Aryan Language of Czechoslovakia," IL 26, 106-31.
Consonant system:
p ph t th c ch k kh
b d ɟ ɡ
ts č čh
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž
m n ñ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p ph b t th d c ch ɟ k kh ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
e o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ē ā ō
Stress: penult
Articles: def
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Number: 1663
Language: Romany
Dialect: Baltic
Location: Estonia
Population: 1 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Romany
Grammar: Venttsel', T. V. 1966. "Tsyganskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 630-51.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h k kh
b d̪ ɡ
(t̪s) č
(d̪z) ɡ̌
(f) s̪ š x
v z̪ ž ɣ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ
Affricates: (t̪s) (d̪z) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj all but ph ts dz č ɡ̌ f z š ž
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
ǝ o
ɑ
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Stress: final
Other Sources: Lockwood, W. B. 1975. Languages of the British Isles Past and Present. London: Andre Duetsch.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s š x h
v ð z ž
m n ŋ
l l̥
r r̥
Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l l̥
Vibrants: r r̥
Modified Consonants: c̄ r
Glides: j w w̥
Vowel system:
i u
e o
ɔ
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all?
Other Sources: De Silva, M. W. Sugathapala. 1969. "The Phonological Efficiency of the Maldivian Writing system," AL 11, 199-208.
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k
b mb d nd ḍ nḍ ɡ ŋɡ
f s š h
v z
m n (ñ)
l ḷ
r
Stops: p b mb t d nd ṭ d nḍ k ɡ ŋɡ
Fricatives: f v s z š h
Nasals: m n (ñ)
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:
I ʋ
ɛ ɔ
a
Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ɐ̄ ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au ei eu ui ou oi
Number: 1666
Language: Sinhalese
Location: Sri Lanka
Population: 10 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Singhalese-Maldivian
Dictionary: Malalasekera, G. P. 1967. English-Sinhalese Dictionary. Colombo, Ceylon: M. D. Gunasena.
TextBooks: Garusinghe, Dayaratne. 1962. Sinhalese: The Spoken Idiom. Munich: Max Hueber.
Other Sources:
Coates, William A. and M. W. S. de Silva. 1960. "The Segemental Phonemes of Sinhalese," Univ of Ceylon Review 18, 163-75.
Gair, James W. 1966. "Colloquial Sinhalese Inflectional Categories and Parts of Speech," IL 27, 31-45.
Gair, James W. 1970. Colloquial Sinhalese Clause Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Karunatilake, W. S. and S. Suseendirarajah. 1973. "Phonology of Sinhalese and Sri Lanka Tamil," IL 34, 180-90.
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k
b mb d̪ nd̪ ḍ nḍ ɡ ŋɡ
č
ɡ̌
s (š) h
v
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: p b mb t̪ d̪ nd̪ ṭ ḍ nḍ k ɡ ŋɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s (š) h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:
I ʋ
ɛ ǝ ɔ
æ a
Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3hmfi *6hai
3: hum, masc anim, fem anim, inan; 6: hum, an, inan
politeness: numerous second person pronouns implying various degrees of respect and differential status.
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N (1)/N-NUM (2,3,...) POSS-N D+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1667
Language: Bashkarik
Location: Pakistan
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central
Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1940. "Notes on Bashkarik," Acta Orientalia 18, 206-57.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b d ḍ ɡ
ts ṭs ṭsh č čh
ɡ̌
s ṣ š x h
z ž ɣ
m n ṇ ŋ
l ʎ
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: ts ṭs ṭsh č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z ṣ š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e (ǝ) o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ē ↔ō ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ai
Tones: ris fall
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV GN DN POSS-N
Number: 1668
Language: Maiya
Location: Pakistan
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central
Other Sources: WPF
Consonant system:
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Number: 1669
Language: Tirahi
Location: E Afghanistan
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central
Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1934. "Notes on Tirahi, " Acta Orientalia 12, 161-89.
Consonant system:
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Syntax: SOV GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1670
Language: Torwali
Location: Pakistan
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central
Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1930. "Notes on Torwali," Acta orientalia 8, 294-310.
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
WALS
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b d ḍ ɡ
č čh
ɡ̌
s š x h
z ž ɣ
m n
l
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j w
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1671
Language: Wotapuri
Location: Afghanistan
Population: 2,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Central
Grammar: DG: Buddruss, Georg. 1960. Die Sprache von Wotˈapur und Katˈarqala. Bonn: Orientalischen Seminars, Univ Bonn.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b d ḍ ɡ
ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh
dz ɡ̌
(f) s (ṣ) š x h
z ɣ
m n ṇ
l ɬ̣
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: ts tsh dz ṭs ṭsh č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) s z (ṣ) š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l ɬ̣
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Diphthongs:
aī au āē aū āī āu āū eā ēu īu ui ūī ūē uō ūo
nasal diphthongs
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar
Grammar: GD: Morgenstierne, G. 1942. "Notes on Dameli," Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap 12, 115-98.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh (q)
b d ḍ ɡ
ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh
s ṣ š x (χ) (h)
z (ẓ) ž (ɣ)
m n ṇ (ŋ)
l
r ɹ́
ɹ́ is a palatal fricative.
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ (q)
Affricates: ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh
Fricatives: s z ṣ (ẓ) š ž x (ɣ) (χ) (h)
Nasals: m n ṇ (ŋ)
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ɹ́ (palatal fricative)
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Back Vowels: u ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ
v̄̃
Tones: lo-ris hi-fall
Noun
Number: s (p)
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
1=4
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1675
Language: Gawar-bati
Location: NE Afghanistan
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Kunar
Grammar: DG: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1950. Notes on Gawar-bati. Oslo.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b d ḍ ɡ
ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č
ɡ̌
s ṣ š (x) h
z ž (ɣ)
m n ṇ
l ɬ
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z ṣ š ž (x) (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄ ṭ ḍ l ...
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ)
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ
v̄̃
Diphthongs: ai au
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Noun
Number: s (p) (pl restricted to animate beings and relatives)
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k q
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s̪ ṣ š x h
z̪ ɣ
m n̪ ṇ ŋ
l̪ l̪̥
r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ ṣ š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ l̪̥
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ǣ ā ū ō
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ ṭh k kh q
b d̪ ḍ (d̪̤)
č čh
ɡ̌
f s̪ ṣ š x h
z̪ (ẓ) ž ɣ
m n̪ ṇ ŋ
l̪
r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ (d̪̤) ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ q
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ ṣ (ẓ) š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: (m f) (gender is present in only some NW dialects.)
Demonstratives: 2
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k
b d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ɡ ɡ̤
t̪s ṭs (ṭsh) č čh
ɡ̌
s̪ ṣ š h
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ṇ ŋ
l̪
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ k ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: t̪s ṭs (ṭsh) č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ ṣ š ž h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Diphthongs: diphthongs
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1682
Language: Dumaki
Location: N Pakistan (Hunza)
Population: 300
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Shina
Grammar: DG: Lorimer, D. L. R. 1939. The Dumaki Language. Nijmegen: Dekker & van de Vegt.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k q
b d ḍ ɡ
ts tsh č̣ č̣h č čh
ɡ̣̌ ɡ̌
f s ṣ̌ š (x)
z ẓ̌ (ɣ)
m n (ṇ) ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: ts tsh č̣ č̣h ɡ̣̌ č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z ṣ̌ ẓ̌ š (x) (ɣ)
Nasals: m n (ṇ) ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i I e ɛ æ
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a
Back Vowels: u ʋ o
Nasal Vowels: ṽ ?
Diphthongs: æi æI au ɔi
Tones: hi lo
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1683
Language: Phalura
Location: N Pakistan
Population: 1,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Dardic: Shina
Dictionary: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1941. Notes on Phalura. Oslo.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b d ḍ ɡ
ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh
dz ḍz ɡ̌
s ṣ š x h
z ž (ɣ)
m n ṇ
l
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: ts tsh dz ṭs ṭsh ḍz č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z ṣ š ž x (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ai
Stress: on first long syllable from end of word
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 6: 3 + that very distant, that above, that below
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b d ḍ ɡ
ṭs ṭsh č čh
ḍz ɡ̌
f s ṣ š h
v z ẓ ž
m n ṇ
l
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: ṭs ṭsh ḍz č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z ṣ ẓ š ž h
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j
Other Sources:
Morgenstierne, Georg. 1941. "The Phonology of Kashmiri," Acta Orientalia 19, 79-99.
Kelkar, Ashok R. and Pran Nath Trisal. 1964. "Kashmiri Word Phonology: A First Sketch," AL 6:1, 13-22.
Handoo, Jawaharlal. 1973. Kashmiri Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
AL 7:8
CTIL 5, 293.
WPF
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
t̪s t̪sh č čh
ɡ̌
s š h
v z
m n
l
r
Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: t̪s t̪sh č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s z š h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj all but č čh ɡ̌ š j
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all (ɔ̄ marɡinal)
Nasal Vowels:
ẽ ǝ̃ ã ũ õ ɔ̃
ı̃̄ ẽ̄ ɨ̃̄ ǝ̃̄ ã̄ ũ̄ ȭ
Diphthongs: ai au
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO AN POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1686
Language: Marathi
Location: W India (Maharashtra)
Population: 45 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South
Dictionary: Deshpande, Madhav K. 1968. Marathi-English Dictionary. Poona: Suvichar Prakashan Mandal.
Grammar: Apte, Mahadeo Laxman. 1962. A Sketch of Marathi Transformational Grammar. Madison: Univ of Wisconsin Diss.
Other Sources:
James, A. Lloyd and S. G. Kanhere. 1928. "The Pronunciation of Marathi," BSOAS 4, 791-801.
Kelkar, Ashok Ramchandra. 1958. The Phonology and Morphology of Marathi. Ithaca: Cornell Univ Diss.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
ts tsh č čh
dz d̤z ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
f s ṣ š h
v
m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ
l̪ ḷ
ɾ
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: ts tsh dz d̤z č ɡ̌ čh ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: f v s ṣ š h
Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ḷ
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ǝ̄ ū
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ
v̄̃
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South
Other Sources:
Ghatage, A. M. 1970. "Marathi of Kasargod," IL 31, 138-44.
E
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k
b d ḍ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
(f) s (š) (h)
v
m n ṇ
l
ṛ̣
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s (š) (h)
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ṛ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1688
Language: Marathi
Dialect: Kunabi
Location: India ( W Maharashtra)
Population: 45 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South
Grammar: Ghatage, A. M. 1966. Kunabi of Mahad. Bombay: State Board of Literature and Culture.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
t̪s č čh
d̪z d̪̤z ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
š h
v v̤
m m̤ n n̤ ŋ
l̪ l̪̤
r r̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: t̪s d̪z d̪̤z č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v v̤ s š h
Nasals: m m̤ n n̤ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ l̪̤
Vibrants: r r̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ɛ̄ ɔ̄
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3fF *6fF
F=m+n
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N Num+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1689
Language: Konkani
Location: W India (Mysore)
Population: 1.5 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: South
Grammar:
Ghatage, A. M. 1963. Konkani of South Kanara. Bombay: State Board for Literature and Culture.
Ghatage, A. M. 1968. Konkani of Kankon. Bombay: State Board for Literature and Culture.
Other Sources: Katre, Lalita S. 1970. "Konkani Kinship Terms," IL 31, 149-61.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
t̪s č čh
d̪z d̪̤z ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
f s̪ š h
v v̤
m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ
l̪ l̪̤ ḷ
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: t̪s d̪z d̪̤z č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: f v v̤ s̪ š h
Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ l̪̤ ḷ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǝ̄ ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1690
Language: Sindhi
Location: S Pakistan
Population: 7 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Western: Northwest
Grammar: Jegorova, R. P. 1966. Jazyk sindxi. Moscow: Nauka.
Other Sources:
Bordie, John G. 1958. A Descriptive Sindhi Phonology. Austin: Univ of Texas Diss.
Rohra, S. K. 1971. "Sindhi, Kacchi, and Emigrant Sindhi," IL 32, 123-31.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ ɓ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɗ̣ ʄ ɡ ɡ̤ ɠ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
f s š x h
v z ɣ
m n ṇ ñ ŋ
l
ɾ ɾ̣
Stops: p ph b b̤ ɓ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ ɗ̣ ʄ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ ɠ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Other Sources: Rohra, S. K. 1971. "Sindhi, Kacchi, and Emigrant Sindhi," IL 32, 123-31.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh c ch k kh
b ɓ d ḍ ɗ̣ ɟ ʄ ɡ ɠ
s h
m n ṇ ñ ŋ
l
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b ɓ t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ ɗ̣ c ch ɟ ʄ k kh ɡ ɠ
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Other Sources: Bahri, Hardev. 1963. Lahndi Phonetics. Allahabad: Bharati Press.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
f s š x
v z ɣ ɦ
m n ṇ
l ḷ
r ɾ̣
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ ɦ
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄ ĩ̄ ẽ̄ ũ̄ ȭ ɑ̃̄
Diphthongs: diphthongs
Syntax: SOV NUM-N
Number: 1693
Language: Parya
Location: Tajikistan
Population: 1,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Consonant system:
Number: 1694
Language: Baluj
Alternate Name: Jatt
Location: Afghanistan
Population: 1,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Consonant system:
Number: 1695
Language: Punjabi
Alternate Name: Panjabi
Location: NW India (Panjab)
Population: 40 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Grammar: Gill, Harjeet Singh and Henry A. Gleason, Jr. 1963. A Reference Grammar of Panjabi. HSL 3.
TextBooks:
Gill, H. S. and H. A. Gleason, Jr. 1963. A Start in Panjabi. HSL 11.
Other Sources:
Gill Harjeet Singh. 1960. "Panjabi Tonemics," AL 2:6, 11-8.
Arun, Vidya Bhaskar. 1961. A Comparative Phonology of Hindi and Panjabi. Ludhiana, India: Panjabi Sahitya Akademi.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
č čh
ɡ̌
(f) s̪ š
v (z̪) ɦ
m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
l̪ ḷ
r ɾ̣
Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ (z̪) š ɦ
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ḷ
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ č ɡ̌ m n l v s
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Modified Vowels: nasal harmony
Diphthongs: Iǝ Io Iɔ Ia ʋa ǝi ǝe ǝu
Tones: hi-ris mid lo-fall
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 [*6]
6 only in oblique cases; in nominative case 3=6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1696
Language: Marwari
Alternate Name: Shekhawati
Location: Pakistan
Population: 220,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1697
Language: Banjari
Alternate Name: Lamani, Lambadi
Location: NW India
Population: 1.5 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources:
PCSD IV, 4-5.
WALS
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s h
m n ṇ ŋ
l ḷ
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1698
Language: Malvi
Alternate Name: Rajasthani
Location: NW India (Madhya Pradesh)
Population: 22 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources:
Bhattacharya, Shefali. 1974. "Malvi Kinship Terms," IL 35, 119-28.
E
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s
v
m n ṇ
l ḷ
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v s
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Stress: non-phonemic
Syntax: SOV AN
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1699
Language: Gujarati
Location: WC India (Madhya Pradesh)
Population: 23 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Dictionary: Mazmudar, M. A., ed. 1969. Gala's Advanced Dictionary (English-Gujarati ). Gomtipur, India: Gala.
Grammar: Cardona, George. 1965. A Gujarati Reference Grammar. Philadelphia: Univ of Pennsylvania Press.
TextBooks:
Lambert, H. M. 1971. Gujarati Language Course. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Other Sources:
Pandit, P. B. 1957. "Nasalization, Aspiration and Murmur in Gujarati," IL 17, 165-72.
Paudit, Prabodh Bechardas. 1965. Phonemic and Morphemic Frequencies of the Gujarati Language. Poona: Deccan College.
Dave, Radhekant. 1967. "A Formant Analysis of the Clear, Nasalized, and Murmured Vowels in Gujarati," IL 28, 1-30.
CJIL 5, 117.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s š
v ɦ
m n̪ ṇ
l ḷ
ɾ
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v s š ɦ
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Nasal Vowels: ĩ ɛ̃ ã ũ ɔ̃
Modified Vowels:
v̤ all
ṽ̤ all but e o
Diphthongs: aI aʋ
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3 *6
politeness: 3 forms of 2: (1) fam, (2) pol, (3) formal.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources:
Srivastava, G. P. 1968. "Bahelia Phonology," IL 29, 67-79.
E
WPF
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s̪ h
v
m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ŋ
l l̤
r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v s̪ h
Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ŋ
Laterals: l l̤
Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1701
Language: Gade Lohar
Location: India (Rajasthan)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources: Sharma, Jagdish Chander. 1973. "Nominal and Verbal Inflection in the Dialect of the Gade Lohars," IL 34, 200-10.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s̪
ɦ
m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ṇ̤
l̪ l̪̤ ḷ ḷ̤
r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s̪ ɦ
Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ ṇ̤
Laterals: l̪ l̪̤ ḷ ḷ̤
Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ
v̄̃
Noun
Number: S P
Noun Classes: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Number: 1702
Language: Khandeshi
Location: N India (Maharashtra)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Consonant system:
Number: 1703
Language: Hindi
Dialect: Bundeli
Location: N India (Madhya Pradesh)
Population: 200 Million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Grammar: Jaiswal M. P. 1962. A Linguistic Study of Bundeli. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s̪
v ɦ
m m̤ n̪ n̪̤
l l̤
r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v s̪ ɦ
Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤
Laterals: l l̤
Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ē ǝ̄ ɵ̄ ū ō ɑ̄
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ
v̄̃
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6
politeness: various honorifics for 2
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1704
Language: Hindi
Location: NC India (Uttar Pradesh)
Population: 200 Million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Grammar: McGregor, R. S. 1977. Outline of Hindi Grammar. Delhi: Oxford Univ Press.
TextBooks: Bender, Ernest. 1967. Hindi Grammar and Reader. Philadelphia: Univ of Pennsylvania Press.
Other Sources:
Mehrotra, Ramesh Chandra. 1964. "Hindi Phonemes," IL 25, 234-46.
Arun, Vidya Bhaskar. 1961. A Comparative Phonology of Hindi and Panjabi. Ludhiana, India: Panjabi Sahitya Akademi.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh (q)
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
(f) s (ṣ) š (x)
v (z) (ɣ) ɦ
m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ
l l̤
ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ (q)
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: (f) v s (z) (ṣ) š (x) (ɣ) ɦ
Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ
Laterals: l l̤
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Diphthongs:
ai au
ãi ãu
Stress: phonemic
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Grammar: Singh, Jag Deva. 1970. A Descriptive Grammar of Bangru. Kurukshetra, India: Kurukshetra Univ.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s
ɦ
m n ṇ ŋ
l ḷ
r ɾ̣
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s ɦ
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ṇ ŋ ɾ̣ ḷ h j w
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ɨ ʉ ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Modified Vowels: nasal harmony
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+NUM+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1706
Language: Urdu
Location: Pakistan
Population: 200 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Dictionary:
Ferozsons Urdu-English Dictionary. n.d. Karachi: Ferozsons.
DT: Bender, Ernest. 1967. Urdu Grammar and Reader. Philadelphia: Univ of Pennsylvania Press.
TextBooks:
Bailey, T. Grahame. 1967. Teach Yourself Urdu. London: English Universities Press.
Barker, Muhammad Abd-al-Rahman, et al. 1967. A Course in Urdu, 3 vols. Montreal: Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill Univ.
Other Sources: Bright, William and Saeed A. Khan. 1958. The Urdu Writing System. New York: American Council of Learned Societies.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
f s š x h
v z (ž) ɣ
m n̪
l
ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̤̪ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: f v s z š (ž) x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I (ɛ)
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ)
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Diphthongs:
ai au
ãi ãu
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
politeness: 3 forms of 2
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1707
Language: Dogri
Location: India Jammu)
Population: 2.2 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1708
Language: Western Pahari
Location: N India (Jammu)
Population: 2 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources: Varma, Siddheshwar. 1936. "The Rudhari Dialect," IL 6, 128-96.
Consonant system:
Modified Consonants: c̄
Tones: hi falling
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 4: this very near/this/that visible/that invisible
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5mf
*3mf *6mf
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1709
Language: Garhwali
Location: N India ( N Uttar Pradesh)
Population: 1 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Other Sources:
Chandrasekhar, A. 1970. "The Phonemes of Garhwali," IL 31, 80-5.
E
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh c ch k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɟ ɟ̣ ɡ ɡ̤
s h
m n
l
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ d̤̣ c ch ɟ ɟ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels: ṽ
Stress: non-phonemic
Syntax: SOV
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1710
Language: Kumauni
Alternate Name: Johari
Location: N India (Uttar Pradesh)
Population: 1 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Central
Grammar: Apte, Mahadeo L. and D. P. Pattanayak. 1967. An Outline of Kumauni Grammar. Durham: Duke Univ.
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s̪ h
m n̪ ṇ ŋ
l
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s̪ h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ɛ̄ ā ū ɔ̄
Nasal Vowels:
Ĩ ɛ̃ ǝ̃ ã ʋ̃ ɔ̃ ı̃̄ ɛ̃̄ ã̄ ũ̄ ȭ
TextBooks: Clark, T. W. 1963. Introduction to Nepali. Cambridge, Eng.: W. Heffer & Sons.
Other Sources:
Southworth, Franklin C. 1967. Nepali Transformational Structure: A Sketch. Poona: Deccan College.
Bandhu, C. M., et al. 1971. Nepali Segmental Phonology. Kirtipur, Nepal: SIL.
Hari, Maria. 1973. "Tentative Systematic Organization of Nepali Sentences," in CSDP I, 203-58.
Bandhu, Churamani. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Nepali," in CSDP II, 1-79.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
ts tsh
dz d̤z
s h
m n̪ ŋ
l
ɾ
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: ts tsh dz d̤z
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Diphthongs:
ǝj ǝw
ǝ̃j ǝ̃w
Other Sources: Saksena, Baburam. 1971. Evolution of Awadhi. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s h
ɦ
m m̤ n n̤
l l̤
r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č ɡ̌ čh ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s h ɦ
Nasals: m m̤ n n̤
Laterals: l l̤
Vibrants: r r̤ ɾ̣ ɾ̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all but ǝ
v̄̃ all but ɑ
Other Sources:
Hugoniot, Richard D. and Austin Hale. 1973. "Contra-Expectancy Particles in Tharu Bhojpuri," in CSDP I, 377-87.
PCSD, 6-7.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s h
m m̥ n n̥ ṇ ŋ ŋ̥
l l̥
r r̥
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m m̥ n n̥ ṇ ŋ ŋ̥
Laterals: l l̥
Vibrants: r r̥
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all but ǝ
Other Sources:
Tiwary, K. M. 1968. "The Echo-word Construction in Bhojpuri," AL 10:4, 32-8.
Trammel, Robert L. 1971. "The Phonology of the Northern Standard Dialect of Bhojpuri," AL 13, 126-41.
Singh, Kripa Shankar. 1972. "A Sketch of the Hierarchical Structure of Bhojpuri," IL 33, 42-58.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s h
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l̪
r r̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r r̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Other Sources:
Jha, Subhadra. 1944. "Maithili Phonetics," IL 8,435-59.
Davis, Alice I. 1973. "Maithili Sentences," in CSDP I, 259-319.
Williams, Jennifer. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Maithili, " in PCSD II, 345-452.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s h
m m̤ n n̤ ŋ
l l̤
ɾ ɾ̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m m̤ n n̤ ŋ
Laterals: l l̤
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̤
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄
Nasal Vowels: ṽ
Diphthongs: ǝi ǝu
Stress: non-phonemic
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern
Grammar: Karpushkin, B. M. 1964. Jazyk orija. Moscow: Nauka.
Other Sources:
Pattanayak, Debi Prasanna. 1966. A Controlled Historical Reconstruction of Oniya, Assamese, Bengali and Hindi. The Hague: Mouton.
Majumdar, Paresh Chandra. 1970. A Historical Phonology of Oriya. Calcutta: Sanskrit College.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
v s ɦ
m n ṇ ŋ
l ḷ
r ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: v s ɦ
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ɾ̣ ɾ̣̤
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ o ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō ɔ̄
Nasal Vowels: ı̃̃ ẽ ã ũ (õ) ɔ̃
Diphthongs: ǝi ou
Other Sources: Woods, Fran. 1973. "Sentence Patterns in Halbi," in PCSD I, 35-123.
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s h
m n
l
r ṛ
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Other Sources:
Christmas, R. B. and J. E. Christmas. 1973a. "Sentence Patterns in Kupia," in PCSD I, 125-95.
Christmas, R. B. and J. E. Christmas. 1973b. "Clause Patterns in Kupia," in PCSD II, 257-343.
Consonant system:
p t̪ t k
b d̪ d ɡ
ts
dz
s
m n̪ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: s
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Other Sources: Gustafsson, Uwe. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Kotia Oriya," in PCSD II, 191-256.
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k
b d ḍ ɡ
ts
dz
s (h)
m n ṇ
l
r ṛ
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: s (h)
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1721
Language: Bengali
Dialect: Calcutta
Location: NE India (West Bengal)
Population: 140 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Indic: Eastern
Dictionary:
Mitra, Subal C. 1967. Century Dictionary (Bengali to English). Calcutta: K. C. Mazumder.
Dabbs, Jack A. 1965. A Short Bengali-English, English-Bengali Dictionary. College Station: Texas A & M Univ.
TextBooks:
Hudson, D. F. 1965. Teach Yourself Bengali. London: English Universities Press.
Dimock, Edward, Somdev Bhattacharji and Suhas Chatterjee. 1976. Introduction to Bengali, part I. New Delhi: Manohar.
Other Sources: Ferguson, Charles A. and Munier Chowdhury. 1960. "The Phonemes of Bengali," Lg 36, 22-59.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ḍ̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
(s̪) š h
m n̪ ŋ
l̪
ɾ ɾ̣
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: (s̪) š h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but h ŋ ɾ ɾ̣
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: indef
Other Sources: Sen, Nilmadhav. 1972. "Some Dialects of Bangla Desh," IL 33, 143-52.
Consonant system:
p t th ṭ ṭh k kh ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ḍ ɗ̣ ɡ ɠ
f s̪ s š (x) h
z zʔ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b ɓ t th d ɗ ṭ ṭh ḍ ɗ̣ k kh ɡ ɠ ʔ
Fricatives: f s̪ s z zʔ š (x) h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Other Sources:
Pattanayak, Debi Prasanna. 1966. A Controlled Historical Reconstruction of Oriya, Assamese, Bengali and Hindi. The Hague: Mouton.
WALS
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
b b̤ d d̤ ɡ ɡ̤
s x h
z
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Fricatives: s z x h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t d k m n ŋ l s z
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɒ
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all but ɔ
Other Sources: Strand, Richard F. 1973. "Notes on the Nuristani and Dardic Languages," JAOS 93, 297-305.
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k
b d ḍ ɡ
ts ṭs č
dz ɡ̌
s ṣ š
v z ẓ ž
m n ṇ ŋ
l
r ṛ
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz ṭs č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s z ṣ ẓ š ž
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ
v̄̃
TextBooks: Morgenstierne, Georg. 1951. "Some Kati Myths and Hymns," Acta Orintalia 21, 161-89.
Other Sources: Strand, Richard F. 1973. "Notes on the Nuristani and Dardic Languages," JAOS 93, 297-305.
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k (q) (ʔ)
b d ḍ ɡ (G)
ts ṭs č
dz ḍz ɡ̌
m n ṇ ŋ
l
r ɾ
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ (q) (G) (ʔ)
Affricates: ts dz ṭs ḍz č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ɾ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ
v̄̃
Stress: phonemic
Articles: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: West Scythian
Consonant system:
Number: 1730
Language: Ossetic
Dialect: Eastern
Location: Georgia
Population: 593,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: West Scythian
Dictionary:
Abaev, V. I. 1950. Russko-osetinskij slovar'. Moscow.
Osetinsko-russkij slovar'. 1970. Ordzhonikidze: Ir.
Grammar:
Abaev, V. I. 1964. A Grammatical Sketch of Ossetic. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Isaev, M. I. 1966. "Osetinskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 237-56.
Other Sources:
Benveniste, E. 1959. Études sur la langue ossète. Paris.
AL 7:8
OPYT
Consonant system:
ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qh
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s t̪sʔ č čʔ
d̪z ɡ̌
f s χ
v z ʁ
m n̪
l
r
Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qh
Affricates: t̪s t̪sʔ d̪z č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z χ ʁ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial if syllable contains a strong vowel (i e a o u); otherwise second
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: (def)
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST
Number: 1731
Language: Ossetic
Dialect: Western
Location: Georgia
Population: 400,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: West Scythian
Grammar: Isaev, M. I. 1966. Digorskij dialekt osetinskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.
Other Sources: Henderson, Eugénie J. A. 1949. "A Phonetic Study of Western Ossetic (Digoron), " BSOAS 13, 36-79.
Consonant system:
p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ q
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s t̪sʔ
d̪z
f s̪ χ
v z̪ ʁ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ q
Affricates: t̪s t̪sʔ d̪z
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I æ
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ō
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1732
Language: Avestan
Location: Iran
Population: 500 B.C.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian
Grammar: Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1892. An Avesta Grammar. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer.
Consonant system:
p t̪ t̪h ṭ k kh
b d̪ d̪̤ ɡ ɡ̤
č
ɡ̌
f s ṣ̌ š h h̃
v z ž
m n n ̣ ñ ŋ
r
Stops: p b t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ k kh ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z ṣ̌ š ž h h̃
Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ao ǝu āi āu ōi aē
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s ṣ̌ š x h
v (ð) z ž (ɣ)
m n (ñ) ŋ
r ɹ̥
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ (ð) s z ṣ̌ š ž x (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n (ñ) ŋ
Vibrants: r ɹ̥
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ā ū ɒ̄
Diphthongs: aē ao ōi ǝ̄u āi āu
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian
Consonant system:
Number: 1739
Language: Pashto
Location: Afghanistan
Population: 13 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian
Grammar:
Penzl, Herbert. 1955. Grammar of Pashto. Washington, D.C.: American Council of Learned Societies.
Shafeev, D. A. 1964. A Short Grammatical Outline of Pashto. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
TextBooks:
Chavarria-Aguilar, O. L. 1962. Pashto Basic Course. Ann Arbor: Dept of Near Eastern Studies, Univ. of Michigan.
Enevoldsen, Jens. 1968. An Introduction to Pashto. Copenhagen: Dansk Pathan Mission.
Other Sources: Morgenstierne, G. and A. Lloyd-James. 1928. "Notes on the Pronunciation of Pashto (Dialect of the Hazara District)," BSOAS 5, 53-62.
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k q
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
(ts) č
(dz) ɡ̌
f s ṣ š x h
z ẓ ž ɣ
m n̪ ṇ
l
ɾ ɾ̣
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: (ts) (dz) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z ṣ ẓ š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: (ī) ē (ū) ō ɑ̄
Diphthongs: aj ǝj au ou āj āu oj
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1740
Language: Pashto
Dialect: Eastern
Location: Afghanistan
Population: 13 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k
b d ḍ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
z ž ɣ
m n ṇ
l
r ṛ
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: cʷ x ɣ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o ɒ
Number: 1741
Language: Wakhi
Location: Tajikistan
Population: 15,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Grammar:
DG: Paxalina, T. N. 1975. Vaxanskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.
DG: IIFL, vol 2.
Paxalina, T. N. 1966. "Vaxanskij jzayk," in JNS 1, 398-418.
Lorimer, L. R. 1958. The Wakhi Language. London.
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
OPYT
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k q
b d ḍ ɡ
ts č̣ č
dz ɡ̣̌ ɡ̌
f θ s ṣ̌ š x χ
v ð z ẓ̌ ž ɣ ʁ
m n
l (ḷ)
r (ṛ)
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: ts dz č̣ ɡ̣̌ č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z ṣ̌ ẓ̌ š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l (ḷ)
Vibrants: r (ṛ)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1742
Language: Munji
Location: NE Afghanistan
Population: 2,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Grammar:
DG: IIFL, vol 2.
DG: Grjunberg, A. L. 1972. Jazyk vostochnogo gindukusha: mundzhanskij jazyk. Leningrad: Nauka.
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
OPYT
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k (q)
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
t̪s č̣ č
d̪z ɡ̣̌ ɡ̌
f s̪ ṣ̌ ç š x h
v z̪ ẓ̌ ž ɣ
m n̪
l̪
r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ (q)
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č̣ ɡ̣̌ č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ ṣ̌ ẓ̌ ç š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j w
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN/(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N
Ergative: erg
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1743
Language: Yidgha
Location: NE Afghanistan
Population: 2,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k q
b d ḍ ɡ
ts č̣ č
ɡ̌
f s ṣ̌ š x
v z ẓ̌ ž ɣ
m n ṇ
l
r ṛ
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: ts č̣ č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z ṣ̌ ẓ̌š ž x ɣ
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: cʷ x
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ū
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN/(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N
Ergative: erg
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1744
Language: Sanglechi
Location: Afghaniston
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Consonant system:
Number: 1745
Language: Ishkashmi
Location: NE Afghanistan
Population: 2,500
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Grammar:
DG: IIFL, vol 2.
Paxalina, T. N. 1959. Ishkashimaskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.
Paxalina, T. N. 1966. "Ishkashimaskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 419-35.
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
OPYT
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k q
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
t̪s č̣ č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ ṣ̌ š χ
v z̪ ẓ̌ ž ʁ
m n̪
l̪ (ḷ)
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č̣ č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ ṣ̌ ẓ̌ š ž χ ʁ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪ (ḷ)
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ou oi ai
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1746
Language: Shughni
Location: Tajikistan
Population: 70,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Dictionary: Zarubin, I. I. 1960. Shuganskie teksty: slovar'. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Grammar: Sokolova, V. S. 1966. "Shugnano-rushanskaja jazykovaja gruppa," in JNS 1, 362-97.
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
OPYT
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f θ s š x χ
v ð z ž ɣ ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ʋ̄ ō
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1747
Language: Shughni
Dialect: Sarikoli
Location: SW China (Sinkiang)
Population: 70,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Dictionary: Paxalina, T. N. 1971. Sarykol'sko-russkij slovar'. Moscow: Nauka.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x χ
v z ž ɣ ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ā ū
Stress: final
Number: 1748
Language: Shughni
Dialect: Bartang
Location: Tajikistan
Population: 70,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Grammar: Karamxudoev, N. 1973. Bartangskij jazyk. Dushanbe: Donish.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f θ s š x χ
v ð z ž ɣ ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ↔ō ā ū ō
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6
Syntax: SOV DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1749
Language: Yazgulami
Location: Tajikistan
Population: 70,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northeast: East Scythian: Pamir
Dictionary: Edel'man, D. I. 1971. Jazguliamsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow: Nauka.
Grammar:
Edel'man, D. I. 1966a. Jazguliamsko jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.
Edel'man, D. I. 1966b. "Jazguliamsko-jazyk," in JNS 1, 436-54.
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
p t c k q
b d ɟ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f θ s š x χ (h)
v ð z ž ɣ ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ q
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ (h)
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cʷ k ɡ q x χ ʁ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: (ā)
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h ṭ ṭh k kh q
b b̤ d̪ d̪̤ ḍ ɡ ɡ̤
č čh
ɡ̌
f s̪ š x h
z̪ ž ɣ
m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ
l̪ l̪̤
r r̤ ṛ
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h d̪ d̪̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ q
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m m̤ n̪ n̪̤ ṇ
Laterals: l̪ l̪̤
Vibrants: r r̤ ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: e (ɛ)
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: o ɒ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō
Nasal Vowels: ṽ
Diphthongs: aI aʋ āʋ āo āI āe
Stress: non-phonemic
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k q
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ ṣ̌ š x h
z̪ ž ɣ ʕ
m n̪ ṇ
l̪
r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ ṣ̌ š ž x ɣ ʕ h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄ m n l
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u ɒ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Grammar: DG: Ivanow, W. 1940. The Gabri Dialect. Rome: G. Bardi.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f (θ) s š x h
v (ð) z ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v (θ) (ð) s z š x ʁ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u (o)
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: All bilingual in Farsi.
Number: 1755
Language: Nayini
Location: C Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Consonant system:
Number: 1756
Language: Natanzi
Location: C Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Consonant system:
Number: 1757
Language: Soi
Location: C Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Consonant system:
Number: 1758
Language: Khunsari
Location: C Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Consonant system:
Number: 1759
Language: Gazi
Location: C Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Consonant system:
Number: 1760
Language: Sivandi
Location: C Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Consonant system:
Number: 1761
Language: Vafsi
Location: C Iran (Central)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Central Iran
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ɣ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: ī ū
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ɣ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Number: 1766
Language: Talysh
Location: Azerbaijan
Population: 1 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Talysh
Grammar:
Miller, B. V. 1953. Talyshskij jazyk. Moscow.
Pirejko, L. A. 1966. "Talyshskij jazyk," in JNS 1 302-22.
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
p t c k
b d ɟ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š χ h
v z ž ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Stress: final
Consonant system:
p ph t th ṭ ṭh k kh
b d ḍ ɡ
č čh
ɡ̌
f θ s š x h
ð z ž ɣ
m n
l
r
Stops: p ph b t th d ṭ ṭh ḍ k kh ɡ
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f θ ð s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I æ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄
Number: 1771
Language: Baluchi
Dialect: Western
Location: S Pakistan
Population: 2 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Baluchi
Dictionary: Gilbertson, G. W. 1925. English-Baluchi Colloquial Dictionary, 2 vols. Hertford.
Grammar:
Rastorgueva, V. S. 1960. Beludzhskij jazyk. Moscow.
Rastorgueva, V. S. 1966. "Beludzhskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 323-41.
TextBooks: Barker, Muhammad Abd-al-Rahman and Aqil Khan Mengal. 1969. A Course in Baluchi. Montreal: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies.
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
OPYT
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k
b d ḍ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
(f) s š x h
v z ž ɣ
m n
l
ɾ ɾ̣
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō (ı̃̄) ẽ̄ ã̄ (ũ̄) ȭ
Diphthongs: ǝj ǝw
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N(1,2,4,5)/N-POSS(3,6) D+Num+A+N
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish
Grammar: Bedir Khan, Emir Djeladet and Roger Lescot. 1970. Grammaire kurde. Paris: Maisonneuve.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3(mf) (6)
3m, 3f, 6 in oblique case only
Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1774
Language: Kirmanji
Alternate Name: Kurdish
Location: Armenia
Population: 1.5 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish
Dictionary:
Kurdoev, K. K. 1960. Kurdsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Farizov, I. O. 1957. Russko-kurdskij slovar'. Moscow.
Grammar:
Kurdov, K. K. 1957. Grammatika kurdskogo jazyka. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Bakaev, C. X. 1962. Govor kuidov Turkmenii. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Bakaev, C. X. 1965. Jazyk azerbajdzhanskix kurdov. Moscow: Nauka.
Bakaev, C. X. 1966. " Kurdskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 257-80.
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh q
b d ɡ
č čh
ɡ̌
m n
l
ɾ r
Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ q
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ø æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o ɒ
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1mf 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1775
Language: Kurdi
Location: Iraq
Population: 5 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish
Dictionary: McCarus, Ernest N. 1967. A Kurdish-English Dictionary. Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Press.
TextBooks: Abdulla, Jamal Jalal and Ernest N. McCarus. 1967. Kurdish Basic Course. Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Press.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s̪ (sɯ)
(v) z̪
m n̪ ŋ
l̪ lɯ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f (v) s̪ z̪ (sɯ
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ lɯ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS D+N+A
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1776
Language: Kurdi
Dialect: Mukri
Location: NW Iran
Population: 5 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Northwest: Kurdish
Grammar: Ejjubi, K. R. and I. A. Smirnova. 1968. Kurdskij dialect mukri. Leningrad: Nauka.
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
m n
l lɯ
r rɯ
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: r rɯ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄
Diphthongs: øe ua yi
Stress: final
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian
Grammar: Kent, Roland G. 1953. Old Persian. New Haven: American Oriental Society.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s̪ ṣ š x h
z̪
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f θ s̪ z̪ ṣ š x h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai au āi āu
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C) rˈ
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: (def)
Pronouns:
1 4
2
3 6
Syntax: SOV NA GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS)
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1779
Language: Farsi
Alternate Name: Persian
Dialect: Tehran
Location: Iran
Population: 20 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian
Grammar:
Mehan, M. n.d. Persian Grammar. Stockholm: Skriptor.
Rubinchik, Y. A. 1971. The Modern Persian Language. Moscow: Nauka.
TextBooks:
Obolensky, Serge, Kambiz Yazdan Panah and Fereidoun Khaje Nouri. 1963. Persian Basic Course. Washington D.C.: CAL.
Lambton, Ann K. S. 1967. Persian Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Mace, John. 1969. Teach Yourself Modern Persian. London: English Universities Press.
Other Sources:
Scott, Charles T. 1964. "Syllable Structure in Tehran Persian," AL 6:1, 27-30.
OPYT
Consonant system:
ph t̪h kh
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š x (h)
v z ž ɣ
m n̪
l
ɾ
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ (h)
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: e æ
Back Vowels: o
Long Vowels: ī ū ɑ̄
Diphthongs: ei ai ui ou
Language: Farsi
Alternate Name: Persian
Dialect: Dari
Location: N Afghanistan
Population: 20 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian
Grammar: Farhadi, A. G. 1955. Le persan parlé en Afghanistan. Paris: Klincksieck.
Other Sources:
Henderson, Michael M. T. 1975. "Diglossia in Kabul Persian Phonology," JAOS 95, 651-4.
Henderson, Michael M. T. 1978. "Modern Persian Verb Morphology,," JAOS 98, 375-88.
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š x h
z ɣ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄
Diphthongs: aj aw
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1781
Language: Farsi
Alternate Name: Persian
Dialect: Hazaras
Location: N Afghanistan
Population: 20 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian
Grammar: Efimov, V. A. 1965. Jazyk afganskix xazara. Moscow: Nauka.
Consonant system:
p t ṭ k q
b d ḍ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š (h)
z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š ž (h)
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ɛ̄ ʋ̄ ō
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1782
Language: Farsi
Alternate Name: Persian
Dialect: Shahrudi
Location: Iran
Population: 20 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian
Other Sources: Yarshater, E. 1959. "The Dialect of Shahrud (Khalkhal), " BSOAS 22, 52-68.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s̪ š x h
v z̪ ɣ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u (o) ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ei ou āi āu
Noun
Number: s p
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV GN POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1783
Language: Tajiki
Alternate Name: Tajik
Location: Tajikistan
Population: 20 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Persian
Dictionary:
Arzumanov, D. and X. K. Karimov. 1957. Russko-tadzhikskij slovar'. Moscow.
Raxim, M. V. and L. V. Uspenskaja. 1954. Tadzhiksko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Grammar:
Kerimova, A. A. 1959. Govor tadzhikov buxary. Moscow.
Rastorgueva, V. S. 1963. A Short Sketch of Tajik Grammar. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Kerimova, A. A. 1966. "Tadzhikskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 212-36.
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
ph th kh qh
b d ɡ
(ts) č
ɡ̌
f s š χ h
v z (ž) ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ qh
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š (ž) χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
politeness: 5 is also used as a polite form for 2
Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP/(POST)
Number: 1784
Language: Tati
Location: SW Russia (S Dagestan ASSR)
Population: 35,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Tati
Grammar: Grjunberg, A. L. 1966. "Tatskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 281-301.
Other Sources: OPYT
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ G
č
ɡ̌
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ G
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y æ
Back Vowels: u ɑ
Diphthongs: ei ɔu øy
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: final in noun; variable in verb
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1785
Language: Fars
Location: Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Fars
Consonant system:
Number: 1786
Language: Lari
Location: SW Iran
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Indo-Iranian: Iranian: Southwest: Fars
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Albanian
Dictionary: Drizari, Nelo. 1957. Albanian-English and English-Albanian Dictionary. New York: Frederic Ungar.
Grammar: Newmark, Leonard. 1957. Structural Grammar of Albanian. IJAL 23:4, Part II.
TextBooks:
Drizari, Nelo. 1959. Spoken and Written Albanian. New York: Frederick Ungar.
Camaj, Martin. 1969. Lehrbuch der albanischen Sprache. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t c k
b d ɟ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f θ s š h
v ð z ž
m n ñ
l lɯ
ɾ
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Diphthongs: ai ei oi ui yi ie ye ua (ue)
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f (n)
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6mf
Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS/(POSS-N)
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: The national language is based on the Tosk dialect.
Other Sources:
Lowman, G. S. 1932. "The Phonetics of Albanian," Lg 8, 271-93.
Byron, Janet. 1976. Selecton among Alternates in Language Standardization. The Hague: Mouton,
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f θ s š x h
v ð z ž ɣ
m n ñ
l lɯ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ỹ ɛ̃ ã ũ
Diphthongs: ie yi ei ai ui ue ɔi
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Syntax: SVO
Обзоры типологий греческих языков
Number: 1791
Language: Classical Greek
Alternate Name: Linear B
Dialect: Mycenaean
Other Sources: Chadwick, John. 1970. The Decipherent of Linear B. Cambridge, Eng: Cambridge Univ Press.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
b d ɡ
s
z
m n
l
r
Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ
Fricatives: s z
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cʷ k kh ɡ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ai au eu oi ou ei ui
Tones: hi low fall
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def
Other Sources: Chadwick, John. 1970. The Decipherent of Linear B. Cambridge, Eng: Cambridge Univ Press.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
b ɡ
s x
z
m n
l
r
Stops: p ph b t th k kh ɡ
Fricatives: s z x
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Tones: hi low fall
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3mfn 6dmfn 6mfn
Syntax: SOV/SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1793
Language: Classical Greek
Location: Greece
Population: c. 500 B.C.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek
Grammar:
Goodwin, William Watson. 1930. Greek Grammar. Boston: Ginn and Company.
McKay, K. L. 1974. Greek Grammar for Students. Canberra: Dept of Classics, Australian National University.
TextBooks: Ruck, Carl A. P. 1972. Ancient Greek: A New Approach. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Other Sources: Allen, W. Sidney. 1968. Vox Graeca. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h k kh
b d̪ ɡ
s h
m n̪ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Front Vowels: i y ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ɛ̄ ā ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ai au eu oi
Tones: hi low fall
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3mfn 6dmfn 6mfn
Syntax: SOV/SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1794
Language: Greek
Location: Greece
Population: 9 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Greek
Grammar:
Mirambel, André. 1959. La langue grecque moderne. Paris: Klincksieck.
Householder, Fred W., Kostas Kazazis and Andreas Koutsoudas. 1964. Reference Grammar of Literary Dhimotiki. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Thomson, George. 1967. A Manual of Modern Greek. London: Collets.
TextBooks: Kahane, Henry, Renée Kahane and Ralph L. Ward. 1945. Spoken Greek. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
ts
dz
f θ s x
v ð z ɣ
m n̪
l
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z x ɣ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def indef
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
č
f θ š x
v ð z ž ɣ
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p t̪ c k
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x ɣ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ð z ž ɣ
Glides: j
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Consonant system:
Comments: All bilingual in Greek
Обзоры типологий итало-романских языков
Number: 1797
Language: Oscan
Location: Italy
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Osco-Umbrian
Grammar: Budk, Carl Darling. 1904. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian. Boston: Ginn.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
f s h
v z
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s z h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: ai ei oi au ou
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Syntax: SOV NA NG DN N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1798
Language: Umbrian
Location: Italy
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Osco-Umbrian
Grammar: Buck, Carl Darling. 1904. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian. Boston: Ginn.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
f s ç h
v z
m n
l
ɾ r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s z ç h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic
Grammar: Giacomelli, Gabriella. 1963. La Lingua falisca. Florence: Leo S. Olschki.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
f s h
z
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f s z h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ai oi au ou
Other Sources: Hall, Robert A., Jr. 1976. Proto-Romance Phonology. New York: Elsevier.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
f s̪
m n̪
l̪
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Fricatives: f s̪
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Front Vowels: i I e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ʋ o ɔ
Diphthongs: ai ei au
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1802
Language: Latin
Dialect: Classical
Location: C Italy
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic
Dictionary: Simpson, D. P. 1960. Cassell's New Latin Dictionary. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Grammar: Serbat, Guy. 1975. Les structures du latin. Paris: A. & J. Picard.
TextBooks: Moreland, Floyd L. and Rita M. Fleischer. 1974. Latin: An Intensive Course. Berkeley: Univ of California Press.
Other Sources:
Palmer, L. R. 1954. The Latin Language. London: Faber & Faber.
Allen, W. Sidney. 1965. Vox Latina. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k kʷ
b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ
f s h
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ
Fricatives: f s h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ae au ui (oe) (eu)
Stress: non-phonemic (penult/antepenult)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 3 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV NA NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP/(POST)
Number: 1803
Language: Sardinian
Location: Italy (Sardinia)
Population: 1 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance
Grammar: Wagner, M. L. 1951. La lingua sarda. Berne: Francke.
Other Sources:
Mazzola, Michael Lee. 1976. Proto-Romance and Sicilian. Lisse: Peter de Ridder.
WALS
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
ts
dz
f s
v
m n̪ ñ
l ʎ
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: f v s
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: v̄
Glides: j
Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Stress: phonemic
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1804
Language: Rumanian
Alternate Name: Daco-Rumanian
Location: Rumania
Population: 22 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern
Dictionary:
Levitchi, Leon. 1960. Dictionar romin-englez. Bucharest: Editura Stiintifica.
Levitchi, Leon, ed. 1974. Dictionar englez-roman. Bucharest: Editura Academiei.
Grammar:
Guillermou, Alain. 1953. Manuel de langue roumaine. Paris: Klincksieck.
Agard, Frederick B. 1958. Structural Sketch of Rumanian. Supplement to Lg 34:3.
Repina, T. A. 1968. Rumynskij jazyk. Moscow: Moscow Univ Press.
TextBooks:
Augerot, James E. and Florin D. Popescu. 1971. Modern Romanian. Seattle: Univ of Washington Press.
Cazacu, B., et al. 1978. Cours de langue roumaine. Bucharest: Editura Didactica.
Other Sources:
Ruhlen, Merritt. 1973. Rumanian Phonology. Stanford: Stanford Univ Diss.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
ts č
ɡ̌
f s š h
v z ž
m n̪
l
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: ts č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i ɨ u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ai au ij ea oa uw ou eau ieu
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f [the so called neuter nouns in Rumanian behave like masc nouns in the singular, and fem nouns in the plural]
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
politeness: 2 has 3 forms: (1) formal, (2) familiar, (3)intimate
3mf & 6mf have polite and plain forms.
Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG ND/(DN) NUM-N N-POSS D+Num+N+A
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1805
Language: Istro-Rumanian
Location: Croatia (Istrian Peninsula)
Population: 1,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern
Dictionary: Maiorescu, Ioan. 1900. Itinerar in Istria si vocabularul istriano-roman. Bucharest: Socecu.
Grammar:
Kovačec, August. 1971. Descrierea istroromanei actuale. Bucharest: Editura Academiei.
Puscariu, Sextil. 1926. Studii istroromane, vol 2. Bucharest: Academia Romana.
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
b d̪
ts č
(ɡ̌)
f s š h
v z ž ɣ
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c k
Affricates: ts č (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: f v s z š ž ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ (a)
Back Vowels: u o ɒ
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f (+ pseudo-neuter, cf. Rumanian)
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1806
Language: Megleno-Rumanian
Location: N Greece
Population: 12,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern
Dictionary: Capidan, T. 1935. Meglenoromanii, vol 3: Dictionarul Meglenoroman. Bucharest: Academia Romana.
Grammar: Capidan, T. 1925. Meglenoromanii, vol 1: Istoria si graiul lor. Bucharest: Academia Romana.
Consonant system:
p t c k
b d ɟ ɡ
ts č̌
dz ɡ̌
f s š
v z ž
m n ñ
l lɯ ʎ
r
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l lɯ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e (ɛ)
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ea oa au eu iu ou ia ie io iu
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f (+ pseudo-neuter, cf. Rumanian)
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SVO NA/AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N+A
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1807
Language: Arumanian
Location: N Greece
Population: 250,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Eastern
Dictionary: Papahagi, Tache. 1974. Dictionarul dialectului aroman. Bucharest: Editura Academiei.
Grammar: Capidan, T. 1932. Aromanii: Dialectul aroman. Bucharest: Academia Romana.
Other Sources: Caragiu-Marioteanu, Matilda.1968. Fono-morfologie aromana. Bucharest: Editura Academiei.
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f (θ) s š h
v (ð) z ž (ɣ)
m n̪ ñ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v (θ) (ð) s z š ž (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ea ia ie io iu oa wa
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f (+ pseudo-neuter, cf. Rumanian)
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
politeness: 3mf & 6mf have polite and plain forms.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Italo-Romance
Grammar: Hall, Robert A., Jr. 1971. La struttura dell'italiano. Rome: Armando Armando.
TextBooks:
Speight, Kathleen. 1962. Italian. London: English Universities Press.
Traversa, Vincenzo. 1967. Parola e pensiero. New York: Harper & Row.
Other Sources:
Agard, Frederick B. and Robert J. Di Pietro 1965. The Sounds of English and Italian. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.
Migliorini, Bruno B. and T. Gwynfor Griffith. 1966. The Italian Language. New York: Barnes & Noble.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š
v
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ š
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but š ñ ǝ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Diphthongs: ja jo je jɛ ju wɔ wa we wi ɛj aj ɔj uj ɛw aw
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: phonemic, but mostly penult
Other Sources:
Fodale, Peter. 1964. The Sicilian Dialects as a Diasystem: A Study in Structural Dialectology. Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Diss.
Mazzola, Michael Lee. 1976. Proto-Romance and Sicilian. Lisse: Peter de Ridder.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ḍ̄ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š
v
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ḍ̄ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s š
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but v j w (ḍ is always lonɡ)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C) mˈ nˈ
Stress: phonemic
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1811
Language: Friulian
Location: Rumania
Population: 400,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance
Grammar: Iliescu, Maria. 1972. Le frioulan à partir des dialectes parlés en Roumanie. The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d g
č
ɡ̌
f s
v z
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance
Grammar: Borodina, M. A. 1969. Sovremennyj literaturnyj retoromanskij jazyk shvejtsarii. Leningrad: Nauka.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
t̪s č ć
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š ç h
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ ć
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ç h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ai au ea ɛi īǝ ou yǝ yi ui uǝ iǝ iē iø uɛ̄ uē uɛ uī
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SVO NA/AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1815
Language: Romansch
Dialect: Surselva
Location: S Switzerland
Population: 50,000 (26,000)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Rhaeto-Romance
Grammar: Borodina, M. A. 1969. Sovremennyj literaturnyj retoromanskij jazyk Shvejtsarii. Leningrad: Nauka.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
t̪s č ć
d̪z
f s̪ š ç h
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ć
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ç h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Diphthongs: ai au iu ɛu ie uǝ ia iu ieu
Stress: phonemic
Other Sources: Martinet, André. 1956. La description phonologique avec application au parler franco-provençal d'Hautiville ( Savoie). Geneva: Droz.
Consonant system:
p t c k
b d ɟ ɡ
f θ s š
v ð z ž
m n ñ
l̪ ʎ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: ɛ̆ ă ɔ̆
Nasal Vowels: ɛ̃ ã ɔ̃
Syllable: (C) (C)V [ɾ]
Stress: phonemic (final or penult)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Articles: def indef
Syntax: SVO NA/AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1817
Language: Franco-Provençal
Dialect: Gascon
Location: SW France (Gascony)
Population: 332,000 (255,000)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance
Dictionary: Palay, Simin. 1974. Dictionnaire du béarnais et du gascon modernes. Paris: CNRS.
Grammar:
Kelly, Reine Cardaillac. 1973. A Descriptive Analysis of Gascon. The Hague: Mouton.
Darrigrand, R. and M. Grosclaude. 1971. Abrégé de grammaire béarnaise et gasconne. Bordeaux.
Other Sources: Kelly, Reine Cardaillac. 1971. "The Sound System of a Gascon Dialect," Linguistics 68, 5-12.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
ɡ̌
f s š
z ž
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š ž
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Modified Consonants: c̄ t m n l
Glides: j (ɥ) w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: au eu ɛu iu ou triph
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance
Dictionary: Dubois, Marguerite-Marie. 1960. Larousse Modern French-English, English-French Dictionary. New York: McGraw Hill.
Grammar: Chevalier, Jean-Claude, et al. 1964. Grammaire Larousse du français contemporain. Paris: Larousse.
TextBooks: Harris, Julian and André Léveque. 1973. Basic Conversational French. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Other Sources:
Armstrong, Lilias E. 1964. The Phonetics of French. London: G. Bell and Sons.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
f s š
v z ž ʁ
m n̪ ñ
l
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s z š ž
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ʁ
Glides: j ɥ w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ (ɑ)
Nasal Vowels: (œ̃) æ̃ õ ɑ̃
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Gallo-Romance
Grammar: Morgan, Raleigh, Jr. 1975. The Regional French of County Beauce, Quebec. The Hague: Mouton.
Other Sources: Ellis, Patricia M. 1965. "Les phonèmes du français maillardvillois," Canadian Journal of Linguistics 11, 7-30.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
f s š
v z ž
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s z š ž
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j ɥ w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ œ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɑ
Nasal Vowels: ẽ ø̃ ã ɔ̃
Other Sources:
Coustenoble, Hélène N. 1945. La phonétique du provençal moderne. Hertford: Stephen Austin and Sons.
Bec, Pierre. 1973. Manuel pratique d'occitan moderne. Paris: A. & J. Picard.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s
d̪z
f s
v z ʁ
m n̪ ñ
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z
Fricatives: f v s z
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r R
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ø ɛ œ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ei ɛi eu ɛu ai ɑu ɔi ɔu ou ui øi œi je jɛ ja jɔ jo ju jø jei jɛi jeu jɛu jai jɑu jɔu jou jœi
Stress: penult & final
Other Sources: Wheeler, Max W. 1972. "Distinctive Features and Natural Classes in Phonological Theory," JL 8, 87-102.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k kʷ
b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ
f s š
v z ž
m n ñ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ
Fricatives: f v s z š ž
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cʷ k ɡ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɑ
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1822
Language: Catalan
Location: NE Spain
Population: 5 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance
Grammar:
GD: Gili, Joan. 1967. Introducory Catalan Grammar. Oxford: The Dolphin Book Co.
Badia Margarit, Antonio M. 1962. Gramatica catalana, 2 vols. Madrid: Gredos.
Other Sources:
Badia Margarit, Antonio Straka and Georges Straka, eds. 1973. La linguistique catalane. Paris: Klincksieck.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š
v z ž
m n ñ
l ʎ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Modified Consonants: c̄ l ʎ m
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Diphthongs: ai ei oi ui au eu iu ou
Stress: penult & final
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3 [reduced to 2 in most modern dialectos]
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
politeness: familiar/politeness distinction for 2 and 5.
Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN/(ND) NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS [optional for 6])
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1823
Language: Spanish
Dialect: Castilian
Location: Spain
Population: 200 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance
Dictionary: Velázquez de la Cadena, Mariano, Edward Gray and Juan L. Iribas. 1974. Velázquez Spanish and English Dictionary. Chicago: Follett.
Grammar: Pottier, Bernard. 1970. Gramática del español. Madrid: Alcala.
TextBooks:
Wilson, N. Scarlyn. 1970. Spanish. London: Teach Yourself Books.
Other Sources:
Llorach, Emilio Alarcos. 1968. Fonologı́a española. Madrid: Gredos.
Dalbor, John B. 1969. Spanish Pronunciation: Theory and Practice. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Macpherson, I. R. n.d. Spanish Phonology: Descriptive and Historical. New York: Barnes & Noble.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
f θ s x
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f θ s x
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ie ia io iu ei ai oi ui ue ua uo eu au ou
Stress: phonemic
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
f s h
m n ñ
l
ɾ r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f s h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: phonemic
Other Sources: Sala, Marius. 1971. Phonétique et phonologie du judéo-espagnol de Bucharest: The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š x
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: diphthongs
TextBooks: Bolinger, Dwight, et al, eds. 1960. Modern Spanish. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
Other Sources:
Stockwell, Robert P. and J. Donald Bowen. 1965. The Sounds of English and Spanish. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
f s x
m n̪ ñ
l
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f s x
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ej aj oj aw ew uj iw
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)
Stress: phonemic, but mostly penult
Other Sources: Isbăsescu, Cristina. 1968. El español en Cuba. Bucharest: Sociedad Rumana de Lingüı́stica Románica.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
f s h
m n ñ
l
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f s h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Other Sources: Chavarria-Aguilar, O. L. 1951. "The Phonemes of Costa Rican Spanish," Lg 27, 248-53.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
f s h
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f s h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Other Sources: Alvarado de Ricord, Elsie. 1971. El español de Panamá. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
f s h
m n ñ
l
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f s h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Other Sources: Florez, Luis. 1965. El español hablado en Santander. Bogota: Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s̪ x
m n ñ
l ʎ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ x
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: phonemic
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
f s š x
m n ñ
l ʎ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f s š x
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: phonemic
Other Sources: Veiga Arias, Amable. 1976. Fonologia gallega. Valencia: Bello.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
f θ s š
m n ñ ŋ
l ʎ
ɾ r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f θ s š
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Modified Consonants: c̄ m n
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Diphthongs: ia ie io iu ua ue ui uo ai au ei eu oi ou
TextBooks: Willis, R. Clive. 1971. An Essential Course in Modern Portuguese. London: Goerge G. Harrap.
Other Sources: Head, Brian. 1964. A Comparison of the Segmental Phonology of Lisbon and Rio de Janieiro. Austin: Univ of Texas Diss.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
f s š
v z̪ ž ʁ
m n ñ
l ʎ
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Fricatives: f v z̪ s š ž
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ ʁ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: (ɐ) a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ẽ ɐ̃ ũ õ
Diphthongs: ɐ̃w ɐ̃j õj
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
politeness: 2 has 4 forms: (1) very familiar, (2) fairly familiar, (3) pol masc, (4) pol fem.
5 has 3 forms: (1) fam, (2) pol masc, (3) pol fem.
Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1834
Language: Portuguese
Dialect: Brazilian
Location: Brazil
Population: 130 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Italic: Romance: Western: Ibero-Romance
Dictionary: Michaelis, H. 1958. The New Michaelis Illustrated Dictionary, 2 vols. Sao Paulo: Melhorametos.
TextBooks:
Ellison, Fred P. and Francisco Gomes de Matos. 1971. Modern Portuguese. New York : Alfred A. Knopf.
Thomas, Earl W. 1974. A Grammar of Spoken Brazilian Portuguese. Nashville: Vanderbilt Univ Press.
Other Sources:
Head, Brian Franklin. 1964. A Comparison of the Segmental Phonology of Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro. Austin: Univ. of Texas Diss.
Camara, Joaquin Mattoso, Jr. 1972. The Portuguese Language. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
f s š x
v z̪ ž
m n ñ
l ʎ
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Fricatives: f v z̪ s š ž x
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ẽ ɐ̃ ũ õ
Diphthongs:
au ai eu ei ɛu ɛi iu ou oi ɔi ui
ão ãe ẽi õi
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6mf
politeness: 2 & 5 each have 3 forms: (1) intim, (2) pol masc, (3) pol fem.
Other Sources:
Fowkes, Robert A. 1940. "The Phonology of Gaulish," Lg 16, 285-99.
Watkins, Calvert. 1955. "The Phonemics of Gualish: The Dialect of Narbonensis," Lg 31, 9-19.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts
s
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts
Fricatives: s
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai au oi ou ūi (eu)
Number: 1837
Language: Irish
Alternate Name: Gaelic
Location: Ireland
Population: 500,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic
Dictionary: Dinneen, Patrick S. 1904. An Irish-English Dictionary. London: David Nutt.
Grammar: Calder, George. 1923. A Gaelic Grammar. Glasgow: Gairn.
TextBooks: Dillon, Myles and Donncha Ó Cróinı́n. 1961. Irish. London: English Universities Press.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h kh
b d̪ ɡ
f s x h
v
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ
Fricatives: f v s x h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj all
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au ou iǝ uǝ
Stress: initial
Other Sources: Breatnach, Risteard B. 1947. The Irish of Ring, Co. Waterford. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h ch kh
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
ɸ s š ç x h
β ɣ ɣʷ
m n̪ ŋ
lj
ɾ
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ch ɟ kh ɡ
Fricatives: ɸ β s š ç x ɣ ɣʷ h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: lj
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: cj p b t d f v h m n ŋ r (l is always palatalized; non-palatalized consonants are velarized.)
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄
Diphthongs: iǝ ia uǝ ai au ǝi ǝu
Stress: initial
Other Sources: de Bhaldraithe, Tomás. 1966. The Irish of Cois Fhairrge, Co. Galway. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h th kh
b d̪ d ɡ
ts tr č
dr ɡ̌
ɸ s š x h
β ɣ
m n n̥ ñ ŋ
l̪ l̪̥ ʎ
ɾ ɾ̥
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ th d kh ɡ
Affricates: ts tr dr č ɡ̌
Fricatives: ɸ β s š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n n̥ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ l̪̥ ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̥
Modified Consonants: cj p b t d k ɡ ɸ β x m n n̥ ŋ l l̥ r r̥
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō ɑ̄
Nasal Vowels: (ṽ)
Diphthongs: iǝ ei uǝ ai au uǝi uǝu
Stress: initial
Other Sources: Ó Cuiv, Brian. 1968. The Irish of West Muskerry, Co. Cork. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h kh
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɸ s š x h
β z ž ɣ
m n̪ n̪̥ ŋ
l̪ l̪̥
ɾ ɾ̥
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: ɸ β s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ n̪̥ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ l̪̥
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̥
Modified Consonants: cj all but s z š ž j ɣ h č
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō ɑ̄
Nasal Vowels: (ṽ)
Diphthongs: iǝ ia uǝ ǝi ai au ou
Stress: initial
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic
Grammar: Fhailigh, Éamonn Mhac an. 1968. The Irish of Erris, Co. Mayo. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h th kh
b d̪ d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
ɸ s š ç x h
βj ɣ
m n̪ n ñ ŋ
l̪ l ʎ
ɾ
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ th d kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: ɸ βj s š ç x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: cj p b k ɡ ɸ m n ŋ l ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels:
ı̃ ẽ ã ũ (õ)
ı̃̄ ẽ̄ ũ̄ ȭ ɑ̃̄
Stress: initial
Other Sources: de Búrca, Seán. 1970. The Irish of Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h (t) c kh
b d̪ (d) ɟ ɡ
(č)
(ɡ̌)
ɸ s ç x h
̤β (z) ɣ
m n̪ n ñ ŋ
l̪ l ʎ
ɾ
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ (t) (d) c ɟ kh ɡ
Affricates: (č) (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: ɸ β s (z) ç x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: cj all but ɣ h k ɡ c ɟ x ŋ l̪
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄
Nasal Vowels: (ṽ)
Diphthongs: iǝ uǝ ǝi ǝu
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
f s x h
v ɣ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
cj
cʷ
Glides: w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ʌ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǝ̄ ū ō ɔ̄
Stress: non-phonemic
Number: 1844
Language: Scottish Gaelic
Location: Scotland
Population: 100,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Goidelic
Grammar:
Holmer, Nils M. 1938. Studies on Argyllshire Gaelic. Uppsala: Almgvist & Wiksells.
Holmer, Nils M. 1957. The Gaelic of Arran. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Holmer, Nils M. 1962. The Gaelic of Kintyre. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Other Sources: Dorian, Nancy C. 1978. "The Fate of Morphological Complexity in Language Death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic," Lg 54, 590-609.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h (th) ch kh (ʔ)
b d̪ (d ) ɟ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š ç x h
v (z) ɣ
m n̪ n̪̥ (n) ñ ñ̥ ŋ
l l̥ lɯ ʎ (ʎ̥)
r r̥
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ (th) (d) ch ɟ kh ɡ (ʔ)
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s (z) š ç x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ n̪̥ (n) ñ ñ̥ ŋ
Laterals: l l̥ lɯ ʎ (ʎ̥)
Vibrants: r r̥
Modified Consonants: c̄ nasals and liquids
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i Y e ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Nasal Vowels: (ṽ)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Brythonic
Grammar: Ternes, Elmar. 1970. Grammaire structurale du breton de l'Ile de Groix. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
TextBooks: Hemon, Roparz. 1972. Cours élémentaire de breton. n.p.: Al Liamm.
Other Sources:
Hemon, Roparz. 1975. A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
ph t̪h kh
b d̪ ɡ
čh
ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l̪
r
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ
Affricates: čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j ɥ w w̃
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ā ū ō ɑ̄
Nasal Vowels: (ɛ̃)
Diphthongs: (ea) (eo) eā eō ei øy ou ae
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: VSO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N POSS-N/(POSS-N-POSS) Num+N+A+D
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1847
Language: Welsh
Location: Great Britain (Wales)
Population: 660,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Brythonic
Dictionary: Evans, H. Meurig and W. O. Thomas. 1953. The New Welsh Dictionary. Llandebie: Christopher Davies.
Grammar: James, Dan L. 1966. Modern Welsh Course. Cardiff: Univ of Wales Press.
TextBooks: Bowen, John T. 1960. Welsh. London: English Universities Press.
Other Sources: Hamp. Eric P. 1951. "Morphophonemes of the Keltic Mutations," Lg 27, 230-47.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
(ɡ̌)
f θ s š x h
v ð
m n ŋ
l l̥
r r̥
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: f v θ ð s š x h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l l̥
Vibrants: r r̥
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ɨ̄ ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ae ai au ei eu aw ew iw wi oe oi ou ow
Stress: penult
Syntax: VSO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N POSS-N/(POSS-N-POSS)
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1848
Language: Cornish
Location: England (Cornwall)
Population: extinct (c. 1800)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Celtic: Brythonic
Grammar: Smith, A. S. D. 1965. Cornish Simplified. Cornwall: An Lef Kernewek.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s š x h
v ð
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s š x h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w w̥
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: aw ow aj ej ew oj
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N POSS-N/(POSS-N-POSS)
Prep/Post: PREP
Обзоры типологий германских языков
Number: 1849
Language: Proto-Germanic
Location: N Germany
Population: c. 500 B. C.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic
Grammar: Coetsem, Frans van and Herbert L. Kufner, eds. 1972. Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
Other Sources:
Antonsen, Elmer M. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k kʷ
b d̪ ɡ
f θ s̪ h hʷ
z̪
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ
Fricatives: f θ s̪ z̪ h hʷ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ǣ ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ei ai eu au
Syllable: nˈ lˈ rˈ
Stress: initial
Syntax: SOV NA GN/NG ND N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1850
Language: Gothic
Dialect: Crimean
Location: SW Russia (Crimea)
Population: extinct (c. 1700 A.D.)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Grammar: Stearns, MacDonald, Jr. 1978. Crimean Gothic. Saratoga, CA: Anma Libri.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪
f θ s̪ š x
v ɣ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k
Fricatives: f v θ s̪ š x ɣ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Syntax: SVO AN
Number: 1851
Language: Gothic
Location: E Bulgaria
Population: c. 350 A.D.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Dictionary: Regan, Brian T. 1974. Dictionary of the Biblical Gothic Language. Phoenix: Wellspring Books.
Grammar:
Mossé, Fernand. 1956. Manuel de la langue gotique. Paris: Aubier.
Krause, Wolfgang. 1968. Handbuch des Gotischen. Munich: C. H. Beck'sche.
Other Sources:
Moulton, William G. 1948. "The Phonemics of Gothic," Lg 24, 76-86.
Marchand, James W. 1973. The Sounds and Phonemes of Wulfila's Gothic. The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k kʷ
b d̪ ɡ
f θ s xʷ h
z
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ
Fricatives: f θ s z xʷ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ s m n l r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: iu
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
*3mfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV NA NG DN N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: Except for Runic inscriptions, Wulfila's translation of the Bible in Gothic is the earliest Germanic Text.
Number: 1852
Language: Vandalic
Location: Germany
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Consonant system:
Number: 1853
Language: Burgundian
Location: Germany
Population: extinct
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Consonant system:
Number: 1854
Language: Runic
Location: Norway
Population: c. 500 A.D.
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Grammar: Antonsen, Elmer H. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
f θ s h
z
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f θ s z h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ǣ ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ai iu ɵu au
Noun
Number: s p
Syntax: SOV NA GN(inan)/NG(anim) ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: Earliest attestation of a Germanic language.
Number: 1855
Language: Danish
Location: Denmark
Population: 5 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary:
Nielsen, B. Kjaerulff. 1964. Engelsk-Dansk Ordbog. Copenhagen: Nordisk.
Vinterberg, Hermann and C. A. Bodelsen: 1954,1956. Dansk-Engelsk Ordbog, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Nordisk.
Grammar:
Bredsdorff, Elias, 1970. Danish: An Elementary Grammar and Reader. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Diderichsen, Paul. 1972. Essentials of Danish Grammar. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
TextBooks:
Koefoed, H. A. 1964. Teach Yourself Danish. London: English Universities Press.
Norlev, Erling and H. A. Koefoed. 1973. The Way to Danish. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh ʔ
f s š h
v ð ɣ ʁ
m n ŋ
l
Stops: p ph t th k kh ʔ
Fricatives: f v ð s š ɣ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ʁ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Diphthongs: ai ɔi au ɔu ɛu œu eu iu yu øu
Stress: usually initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: common (m+f) neuter
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfnc 6
c=common
masc and fem are semantically determined by sex; common and neuter are grammatically determined by noun class.
politeness: 2 & 5 each have polite and intimate forms; however 2 pol=5 pol
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1856
Language: Swedish
Location: Sweden
Population: 9 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary: Wessely, Ignaz Emanuel. 1941. Wessely's Swedish-English Dictionary. Philadelphia: David McKay.
TextBooks:
McClean, R. J. 1969. Teach Yourself Swedish. London : English Universities Press.
Borland, Harold H. 1970. Swedish for Students. London: George G. Harrap.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
ph t̪h ṭh kh
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
f s̪ ṣ̌ ç h
v
m n̪ ṇ ŋ
l̪ ḷ
ɹ
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ kh ɡ
Fricatives: f v s̪ ṣ̌ ç h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ḷ
Vibrants: ɹ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: y I ɛ œ æ
Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ Ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ʋ̄ ō ɑ̄
Tones: fall fall-fall (falling tone accurs on monosyllabic words, fall-fall on polysyllabic words.)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: common (m+f) neuter
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfnc 6
c=common
politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol
Syntax: SVO AN GN(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1857
Language: Norwegian
Location: Norway
Population: 4 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary:
Gleditsch, T. 1948. Engelsk-Norsk Ordbok. Oslo: H. Aschehoug.
Haugen, Einar, ed. 1965. Norwegian-English Dictionary. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
TextBooks:
Haugen, Einar. 1964. Spoken Norwegian. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Marm, Ingvald. 1967. Teach Yourself Norwegian. New York: David McKay.
Other Sources: Vanvik, Arne. 1972. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of Standard Eastern Norwegian," Norwegian Journal of Linguistics 25:2, 119-64.
Consonant system:
p t̪ (ṭ) k
b d̪ (ḍ) ɡ
f s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h
v
m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ
l̪ (ḷ)
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ (ṭ) (ḍ) k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h
Nasals: m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ
Laterals: l̪ (ḷ)
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: y I ø ɛ æ
Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai æʉ ɛi ɔi ʉi øy øu æi æu
Tones: lo-ris hi-fall-ris
Stress: mostly initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: common (m+f) neuter
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfnc 6
c=common
politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol
Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS/(POSS-N) D+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: Modern Norwegian has two different standards. Bokmål reflects the heavy Danish influence during the Middle Ages, while Nynorsk represents an attempt to preserve a 'purer' older form of Norwegian, denuded of Danish borrowings. There is some hostility between the two gruops, but the two varieties of speech are easily mutually intellegible.
Number: 1858
Language: Norwegian
Dialect: Trondheim
Location: Norway
Population: 4 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Other Sources: Vanvik, Arne. 1966. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of the Dialect of Trondheim. Oslo: Universititsforlaget.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h ṭh ch kh
b d̪ ḍ ɟ ɡ
f s š ç h
v
m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥
ɾ ɾ̣
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ ch ɟ kh ɡ
Fricatives: f v s š ç h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ æ
Central Vowels: ʉ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ū ō ɑ̄
Diphthongs: ei øy øʉ (ɑi) (ɔy)
TextBooks:
Glendening, P. J. T. 1961. Teach Yourself Icelandic. London: English Universities Press.
TD: Jónsson, Snoebjörn. 1966. A Primer of Modern Icelandic. London: Oxford Univ Press.
Other Sources:
Haugen, Einar. 1958. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," Lg 34, 55-88.
Malone, Kemp. 1970. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," in Studies in Honor of Albert Morey Sturtevant, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 5-21.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
f θ s h
v ð
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph t th k kh
Fricatives: f v θ ð s h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i I Y ø ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ui ei oi ou ai øi au
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3mfn 6mfn
politeness: 2 forms of 2: (1) intim [2 pol=5] (2) pol
Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1860
Language: Faroese
Location: Netherlands (Faroe Islands)
Population: 40,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary: Svabo, J. C. 1966, 1970. Dictionarium Færoense. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Grammar: Lockwood, W. G. 1955. An Introduction to Modern Faroese. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h kh
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s ṣ š h
v
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l̪ ʎ
r
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s ṣ š h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t d k ɡ f s m n l r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ↔ō ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ɛa ɔa ʋY ɔu ʉu ai ɛi ɔi
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6mfn
politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol
Syntax: SVO AN NG/(GN) DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1861
Language: German
Location: Germany
Population: 100 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Dictionary: Betteridge, Harold T., ed. 1958. The New Cassell's German Dictionary. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Grammar: Lederer, Herbert. 1969. Reference Grammar of the German Language. New York: Charles Scribner's.
TextBooks: Lohnes, Walter F. W. and F. W. Strothmann. 1967. German: A Structural Approach. New York: Norton.
Other Sources: Moulton, William G. 1962. The Sounds of English and German. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h kh (ʔ)
b d̪ ɡ
pf t̪s
f s š x h
v z ž ʁ
m n̪ ŋ
l̪
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ (ʔ)
Affricates: pf t̪s
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ʁ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ū ō ɑ̄
Diphthongs: ai oi au
Stress: generally initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 1
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6 + indef
politeness: 2 & 5 each have familiar & polite forms; however 2 pol = 5 pol
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1862
Language: Yiddish
Location: W Russia
Population: 4 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Dictionary: Bergman, Aaron. 1968. Student's Dictionary: English-Yiddish, Yiddish-English. New York: Kinderbuch.
Grammar: Fal'kovich, E. M. 1966. "Evrejskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 599-629.
TextBooks: Weinreich, Uriel. 1967. College Yiddish. New York: Yivo Institute for Jewish Research.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
f s š x h
v z ž ʁ
m n
l lɯ
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts č
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: ʁ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Diphthongs: aj ej oj
Syllable: nˈ lˈ
Stress: phonemic, but mostly penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6 + indef
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: In 1939 there were an estimated twelve million speakers of Yiddish, Hitler's massacre of the Jews during WWII, and the subsequent dispersal of East European Jews around the world (with consequent assimilation to various cultures and languages) has reduced the number to perhaps four million.
Number: 1863
Language: Luxembourgeois
Location: Luxembourg
Population: 390,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1864
Language: Dutch
Location: Netherlands
Population: 20 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Dictionary: Prick Van Wely, F. P. H. 1951. Cassell's English-Dutch, Dutch-English Dictionary. London: Cassell.
TextBooks:
Bloomfield, Leonard. 1944. Spoken Dutch. New York: Holt.
Shetter, Wiiliam Z. 1958. Introduction to Dutch. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Koolhoven, H. 1961. Dutch. New York: David McKay.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d
(č)
f s š x h
v z (ɣ) ʁ
m n ŋ
l
Stops: p b t d k
Affricates: (č)
Fricatives: f v s z š x (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ʁ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ɛi œi yu ɔu āi ōi ūi īu ēu
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: common (m+f) neuter
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
TextBooks: Burgers, M. P. O. 1957. Teach Yourself Afrikaans. London: The English Universities Press.
Other Sources:
Pienaar, P. de V. and A. G. Hooper. 1948. An Afrikaans-English Phonetic Reader. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand Univ. Press.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d (ɡ)
č
f s š x
v (z) ɦ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k (ɡ)
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f v s (z) š x ɦ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ (↔ē) (ǝ̄) ā ū ō ɔ̄
Diphthongs: ai āi ǝi ɔi ɔ̄i ui ōi ēu ou œy
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
politeness: + 2 polite
Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1866
Language: Frisian
Location: Netherlands (Frisian Islands)
Population: 730,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
f s x h
z
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f s z x h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Comments: Frisian, the language most closely related to English, has for some time been on the decline. All speakers are bilingual in Dutch or German.
Number: 1867
Language: English
Dialect: British
Location: England
Population: 300 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Grammar: Quirk, Randolph and Sidney Greenbaum. 1973. A Concise Grammar of Contemporary English. New York : Harcount Brace Jovanovich.
Other Sources:
Jones, Daniel. 1950. An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons.
Gimson, A. C. 1962. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Edward Arnold.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
ph th kh
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s š h
v ð z ž
m n ŋ
l
ɹ̣
Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɹ̣
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɒ
Long Vowels: ī ǝ̄ ū ɔ̄ ɑ̄
Diphthongs: eI aI ɔI oʋ ɑʋ Iǝ ɛǝ ʋa
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
2=5
politeness: a few varieties of British English preserve a polite/intimate distinction for the 2 pronoun (i.e thou/you)
Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1868
Language: English
Dialect: Scottish
Location: Scotland
Population: 300 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s š x h
v ð z ž
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ʌ
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1869
Language: English
Dialect: West Canadian
Location: W Canada
Population: 300 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s š h
v ð z ž
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1870
Language: English
Dialect: American
Location: USA
Population: 300 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: West
Dictionary: Guralnik, David B., ed. 1970. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Grammar: Stageberg, Norman C. 1971. An Introductory English Grammar. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Other Sources:
Kenyon, John Samuel. 1943. American Pronunciation. Ann Arbar: George Wahr.
Thomas, Charles Kenneth. 1958. An Introduction to the Phonetics of American English. New York: The Ronald Press.
King, Harold V. 1961. English Phonology. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Publishers.
Bronstein, Arthur J. 1960. The Pronunciation of American English. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
ph th kh
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s š h hʷ
v ð z ž
m n ŋ
lɯ
ɹ̣
Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v θ ð s z š ž h hʷ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: lɯ
Vibrants: ɹ̣
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Central Vowels: (ɨ̄) ǝ ɐ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ ɑ
Diphthongs: Ii eI aI ɔI oʋ ʋu aʋ
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Обзоры типологий балтских языков
Number: 1871
Language: Old Prussian
Location: NE Poland
Population: extinct (c. 1700)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: West
Dictionary: Toporov, V. N. 1975. Prusskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.
Grammar: Schmalstieg, William R. 1974. An Old Prussian Grammar. University Park: Pennsyvania State Univ Press.
Other Sources: Levin, Jules F. 1974. The Slavic Element in the Old Prussian Elbing Vocabulary. UCPL 77.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
(f) s̪ š (h)
v z̪ (ž)
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š (ž) (h)
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj all
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai au ei
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6mf
Syntax: NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1872
Language: Latvian
Location: Latvia
Population: 2 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: East
Grammar: Grabis, R. 1966. "Latyshskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 466-99.
Other Sources:
Grava, Arnolds. 1970. "Phonemic Inventory of Vowels and Diphthongs in Latvian," Linguistics 56, 31-51.
Al 7:8
Consonant system:
p t c k
b d ɟ ɡ
ts (č)
dz ɡ̌
(f) s š x (h)
v z ž
m n ñ
l ʎ
r rj
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz (č) ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x (h)
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r rj
Modified Consonants: c̄ m n ñ l ʎ r j v
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ)
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū
Diphthongs: ai au ei ie ui uo (oi)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: East
Other Sources: Al 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š (x) (h)
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž (x) (h)
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ā ū
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1874
Language: Lithuanian
Location: Lithuania
Population: 3 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Baltic: East
Dictionary:
Laučka, A., B. Piesarskas and E. Stasiulevičiute. 1978. English Lithuanian Dictionary. Vilnius: Mokslas.
Grammar:
Ambrazas, V. 1966. "Litovskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 501-27.
Peterson, M. N. 1955. Ocherk litovskogo jazyka. Moscow.
TextBooks: Dambriunas, Leonardas, Antanas Klimas and William R. Schmalstieg. 1966. Introdution to Modern Lithuanian. Brooklyn: Franciscan Fathers Press.
Other Sources: Klimas, Antanas. 1970. "Some Attempts to Inventory Lithuanian Phonames," in Baltic Linguistics, ed. by Thomas F. Magner and William R. Schmalstieg, University Park, Penneylvania State Univ Press, 93-102.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
(f) s š (x) h
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž (x) h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj all
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au ei ie ui uo
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: East
Dictionary:
Smirnitsky, A. I. 1959. Russian-English Dictionary. New York: E. P. Dutton.
Müller, V. K. 1959. English-Russian Dictionary. New York: E. P. Dutton.
Grammar:
Forbes, Nevill. 1964. Russian Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Panov, M. V. 1966. "Russkij jazyk," in JNS 1, 55-122.
Bidwell, Charles E. 1969. The Structure of Russian in Outline. Pittsburgh: Univ of Pittsburgh Press .
TextBooks:
Stilman, Galina, Leon Stilman and William E. Harkins. 1972. Introductory Russian Grammar. Lexington, Mass: Xerox.
Other Sources:
Jones, Daniel and Dennis Ward. 1969. The Phonetics of Russian. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Auty, Robert and Dimitri Obolensky. 1977. An Introduction to Russian Language and Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
f s š x
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts č
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj p b t d k f v s z m n l r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: ij ɨj ej aj oj uj
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
2=intim, 5= 2pol + 2 pl
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1876
Language: Byelorussian
Location: Belarus
Population: 10 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: East
Dictionary:
Krapivy, K. K., ed. 1962. Belorussko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Russko-belorusskij slovar'. 1953. Moscow
Birillo, N. Y., M. G. Bulaxov and M. R. Sudnik. 1966. "Belorusskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 154-93.
TextBooks: Pashkievich, V. 1974, 1978. Fundamental Byelorussian, 2 vols. Toronto.
Other Sources:
Bidwell, Charles E. 1967. Outline of Bielorussian Morphology. Pittsburgh.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ (ɡ)
t̪s č
(dz) ɡ̌
(f) s̪ š x h
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ)
Affricates: t̪s (d̪z) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž x h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ ts dz č s z š ž n l cj all but t d ts č ɡ̌ š ž r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1877
Language: Ukrainian
Location: Ukraine
Population: 40 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: East
Dictionary:
Podvezko, M. L. and M. I. Balla. 1974. English-Ukrainian Dictionary. Kiev: Radyanska Shkola.
Andrusyshen, C. H. and J. N. Krett. 1957. Ukrainian-English Dictionary. Toronto: Univ of Toronto Press.
Grammar: Beloded, I. K. and M. A. Zhovtobrjux. 1966. "Ukrainskij jazyk," in JNS 1, 123-53.
Other Sources:
Bidwell, Charles E. 1971. Outline of Ukrainian Morphology. Pittsburgh: Univ Center for International Studies, Univ of Pittsburgh.
Chopyk, Dan B. 1973. "Variant Phonemic Systems of Contemporary Standard Ukrainian," Linguistics 98, 5-19.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
(dz) ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts (dz) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj t d n s z ts dz l r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: phonemic, but largely predictable
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1878
Language: Polish
Location: Poland
Population: 35 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West
Dictionary: Stanislawski, Jan. 1964. The Great English-Polish Dictionary. Warsaw: State Publishing House.
Grammar: Brooks, Maria Zagorska. 1975. Polish Referece Grammar. The Hague: Mouton.
TextBooks: Schenker, Alexander M. 1973. Beginning Polish, 2 vols. New Haven: Yale Univ Press.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č ć
d̪z ɡ̌ ɟ́
f s̪ š ś x
v z̪ ž ź
m n̪ ñ
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌ ć ɟ́
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ś ź x
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj p b k ɡ f v x m
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Nasal Vowels: (ɛ̃) ɔ̃
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6mM
M=non-masc
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1879
Language: Kashubian
Location: N Poland
Population: 3,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West
Grammar:
GD: Perkowski, Jan Louis. 1969. A Kashubian Idiolect in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Stokhof, W. A. L. 1973. The Extinct East-Slovencian Kluki-Dialect. The Hague: Mouton.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š x
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l
r ř
ř is a voiced apical alveolar sibilant trill)
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ř (voiced apical alveolar sibilant trill)
Modified Consonants: cj p b f v m n l t d
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ẽ ã
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
Syntax: SVO AN NG/(GN) DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: all bilingual in Polish
Number: 1880
Language: Polabian
Location: N Germany
Population: extinct (c. 1740)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West
Dictionary: Polań́ski, Kazimierz and james Allen Sehnert. 1967. Polabian-English Dictionary. The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts
dz
f s x
v z
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: f v s z x
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj all but f
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Nasal Vowels: ã õ
Diphthongs: ai ɑi oi au ɑu
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f n
Articles: def
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1881
Language: Upper Sorbian
Alternate Name: Lusatian
Location: SE Germany
Population: 55,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj p b t d s z n l r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: initial
Number: 1882
Language: Lower Sorbian
Location: E Germany
Population: 14,000
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1883
Language: Czech
Location: Czech Republic
Population: 10 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West
Grammar:
Mazon, André. 1952. Grammaire de la langue tchèque. Paris: Institut d'Études Slaves.
Harkins, William E. 1953. A Modern Czech Grammar. New York: King's Crown Press.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ (ɡ)
t̪s č
(f) s š x
v z ž ɦ
m n̪
l
r ř
(ř = rž < rj)
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ)
Affricates: t̪s č
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž x ɦ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ř (= rž < rj)
Modified Consonants: cj t d n
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ɛ̄ ā ū (ō)
Diphthongs: ou
Syllable: lˈ rˈ
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mfn *6mfn
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1884
Language: Slovak
Location: Slovakia
Population: 4 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: West
Dictionary: šimko, Ján. 1968. English-Slovak Dictionary. Bratislava: Pedagogical Publishing House.
Grammar: Bartoš, Jozef and Joseph Gagnaire. 1972. Grammaire de la langue slovaque. Paris: Institut d'Études Slaves.
TextBooks: Baláž, Peter, Jozef Bartoš and Miloslav Darovec. 1973. Manuel de slovaque à l'usage des slavisants. Bratislava: Slovenské Pedagogické Nakladatel'stvo.
Other Sources: AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š x h
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj t d n l
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but æ
Diphthongs: ia ie iu uo
Syllable: lˈ rˈ
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 1
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6mM
m=masc M=non-masc
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1885
Language: Old Church Slavonic
Location: Bulgaria
Population: extinct (c. 1,000 A. D.)
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South
Grammar:
Lunt, Horace G. 1974. Old Church Slavonic Grammar. The Hague: Mouton.
Schmalstieg, William T. 1976. An Introduction to Old Church Slavic. Cambridge, MA: Slavica.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
dz
s̪ š x
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
r rj
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: ts d̪z č
Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ š ž x
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: r rj
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ æ
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ ? Ĭ ʋ̆
Nasal Vowels: ɛ̃ ɔ̃
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
*3 *6d *6
Syntax: SVO AN NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1886
Language: Slovene
Alternate Name: Slovenian
Location: Slovenia
Population: 2 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South
Dictionary:
Kotnik, Janko. 1962. Slovene-English Dictionary. Ljubljana: Državna Založba Slovenije.
Grad, Anton. 1971. English-Slovene Dictionary. Ljubljana.
Other Sources:
Lenček, Rado L. 1966. The Verb Pattern of Contemporary Standard Slovene. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Bidwell, Charles E. 1969. Outline of Slovenian Morphology. Pittsburgh: Univ Center for International Studies, Univ of Pittsburgh.
AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
f s̪ š x
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s č
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ē ɛ̄ ā ū ō ɔ̄
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South
Dictionary:
Drvodelić, Milan. 1970. Croato-Serbian English Dictionary. Zagreb: školska Knjiga.
Rustić, Svetomir and živojin Simić. 1975. An English-Serbocroatian Dictionary. Belgrad: Prosveta.
Grammar:
Grozdić, Oton. 1969. Serbo-Croatian Grammar and Reader. New York: Hafner.
Popović, Alexandre and Michel Popović. 1969. Manuel pratique de langue serbo-croate. Paris: Klinksieck.
Dmitriev, P. A. and G. I. Safronov. 1975. Serboxorvatskij jazyk. Leningrad: Leningrad Univ. Press.
Hamm, Josip. 1975. Grammatik der serbokroatischen Sprache. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
TextBooks:
Magner, Thomas F. 1972. Introduction to the Croatian and Serbian Language. State College, PA: Singidunum Press.
Javarek, Vera and Miroslava Sudjić. 1969. Teach Yourself Serbo-Croat. London: English Universities Press.
Other Sources:
Hodge, Carleton T. 1946. "Serbo-Croatian Phonemes," Lg 22, 112-20
Bidwell Charles E. 1964. "The Serbo-Croatian Verb," Lg 40, 532-50.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č ć
ɡ̌ ɟ́
f s š h
v z ž
m n̪ ñ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s ć ɟ́ č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) rˈ
Tones: ris fall
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6mfn
Syntax: SVO AN NG/(GN) DN NUM-N POSS-N Num+A+N
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1888
Language: Macedonian
Location: Macedonia
Population: 2 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South
Dictionary: Kitanovski, Dano. 1967. Frantsusko-makedonski rechnik. Skopje.
Grammar: Lunt, Horace G. 1952. A Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language. Skopje.
Other Sources:
AL 7:8
WALS
WPF
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l lɯ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1889
Language: Bulgarian
Location: Bulgaria
Population: 8 million
Classification: Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Slavic: South
Dictionary:
Atanasova, T., et al. 1975. Bulgarian-English Dictionary. Sofia: Nauka i Izkustvo.
Atanasova, T., et al. 1973. English-Bulgarian Dictionary, 2 vols. Sofia: Academy of Sciences.
Other Sources:
Van Campen, Joseph A. 1959. "Alternative Analyses of the Bulgarian Nonsyllabic Phonemes," Lg 35, 264-70.
Aronson, Howard I. 1968. Bulgarian Inflectional Morphophonology. The Hague: Mouton.
Scatton, Ernest A. 1975. Bulgarian Phonology. Cambrige, MA: Slavica.
Al 7:8
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
(dz) (ɡ̌)
f s š x
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts (dz) č (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj all but č ɡ̌ š ž x
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6
Syntax: SVO AN POSS-N
Prep/Post: PREP
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Уральской семьи
Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: North
Dictionary:
Lehtisalo, T. 1956. Juraksamojedishes Wörterbuch. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
Pyrerka, A.P. and N.M. Tereshchenko. 1948. Russko-nenetskij slovar'. Moscow.
Tereshchenko, N.M. 1965. Nenetsko-russkij slovar. Moscow.
Grammar:
Décsy, Gyula. 1966. Yurak Chrestomathy. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Tereshchenko, N.M. 1966. "Nenetskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 376-95.
Other Sources: SUL
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b d (ɡ)
ts
s x
β (z)
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k (ɡ) ʔ
Affricates: ts
Fricatives: β s (z) x
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but ʔ j
cj all but k ɡ ʔ j β x ŋ
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i ɯ u
e ɤ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: CV(C)(C)(C)
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 2+ref
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1894
Language: Enets
Alternate Name: Yenets
Location: NC Russia
Population: 300
Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: North
Grammar: Tereshchenko, N.M. 1966. "Enetskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 438-57.
Consonant system:
p t c k ʔ ʔ ̃ (nasalized ɡlottal stop)
b d ɟ ɡ
č
s sʷ š šʷ (x)
(β) ð
m n ñ (ŋ)
l
r
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ ʔ ʔ̃ (nasalized ɡlottal stop)
Affricates: č
Fricatives: (β) ð s sʷ š šʷ (x)
Nasals: m n ñ (ŋ)
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ t d ɡ n
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: diphthonɡs
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s d p
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1895
Language: Nganasan
Alternate Name: Tavgy
Location: NC Russia (Taymyr Peninsula)
Population: 750
Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: North
Grammar: Tereshchenko, N.M. 1966. "Nganasanskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 416-37.
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b d ɡ
č
s x
ð
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: ð s x
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj ̄ d n l
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e æ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ie ia eu æu au yæ ya yo ǝu ɨǝ ua uo ou
Consonant system:
p t k q
č
s š
β
m n ñ ŋ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p t k q
Affricates: č
Fricatives: β s š
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but č β ŋ r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɒ
Long Vowels: v̄
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 4?
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4d* 4*
2 5d* 5*
3 6d 6
*[4d=4 & 5d=5 in some case forms (e.g. nom.), but not in others (e.g. dat.)]
Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1897
Language: Selkup
Dialect: Tym
Location: NW Russia (Xanty-Mansiysk)
Population: 3,800
Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: South
Grammar: GD: Katz, Hartmut. 1975. Selcupica 1. Materialen vom Tym. Munich: Finno-Ugric Seminar, Univ of Munich.
Other Sources:
Szabó, László. 1967. Selkup Texts. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k q
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
(f) s š (x)
v ʁ
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s š (x) ʁ
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ t s š m n l only
cʷ t c k q č s
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but æ
Diphthongs: au ou
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s d p
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1898
Language: Kamas
Alternate Name: Sayan Samoyed
Location: Russia
Population: (+) 1970
Classification: Uralic: Samoyed: South
Other Sources: SUL
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b d ɡ
ts
dz
s š h
β z ž ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: β s z š ž ɣ h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ cj s z
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o ɤ ɒ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Diphthongs: ia iɛ ie yɛ yɤ uǝ yǝ iy
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s [d] p
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1899
Language: Hungarian
Location: Hungary
Population: 14 million
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Ugric
Dictionary:
Országh, László. 1953. Hungarian-English Dictionary. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
Országh, László. 1960. English-Hungarian Dictionary. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
Grammar:
Benkő, Loránd and Samu Imre, eds. 1972. The Hungarian Language. The Hague: Mouton.
Tompa, József. 1972. Kleine ungarische Grammatik. Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie.
Hall, Robert A. 1944. Hungarian Grammar. Lg Monograph No. 21.
TextBooks: Bánhidi, Z. Z. Jókay and D. Szabó. 1965. A Textbook of the Hungarian Language. London: Collet's.
Other Sources: SUL
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ ø
Back Vowels: u o ɒ
Long Vowels: v̄ i y e ø a u o
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Other Sources:
Rédei, Károly. 1965. Northern Ostyak Chrestomathy. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
SUL
Consonant system:
p t k
ts č
s š x
m n ŋ
l (ḷ)
r
Stops: p t k
Affricates: ts č
Fricatives: s š x
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l (ḷ)
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ cj t s n (l)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: e a ʋ ɔ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Consonant system:
p t k
č̣
s (š)
ɣ
m n ṇ ŋ
l ḷ
r
Stops: p t k
Affricates: č̣
Fricatives: s (š) ɣ
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj t n l
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Modified Vowels: v̆(reduced) e ø ǝ o
Stress: initial or second
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1902
Language: Xanty
Alternate Name: Ostyak
Dialect: Western
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
s̪ š x
m n̪ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p t̪ k
Fricatives: s̪ š x
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj t s n
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: o
Long Vowels: e u ɔ ɑ
Other Sources:
Kálmán, Béla. 1965. Vogul Chrestomathy. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
SUL
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k kʷ
s̪ š x ɣ
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l̪ ʎ
r
Stops: p t̪ c k kʷ
Fricatives: s̪ š x ɣ
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1904
Language: Udmurt
Alternate Name: Votyak
Location: NW Russia (Udmurt ASSR)
Population: 700,000
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Permic
Dictionary: Russko-udmurtskij slovar'. 1956. Moscow.
Grammar:
Tepljashina, T.I. 1966. "Udmurtskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 261-80.
Tepljashina, T.I. 1970. Jazyk besermyan. Moscow: Nauka.
Other Sources: SUL
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
(ts) č
ɡ̌
(f) s̪ š (x)
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž (x)
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj t d s z č ɡ̌ s z n l
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
(ts) č
ɡ̌
(f) s̪ š (x)
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž (x)
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cj ̄ t d č ɡ̌ s z n l
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: mostly initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1906
Language: Komi
Dialect: Yazva
Location: NW Russia (Komi ASSR)
Population: 430,000 (4,000)
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Permic
Grammar: Lytkin, V.I. 1961. Komi-jaz'vinskij dialekt. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
d̪ ɟ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s̪ š
v z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l̪ ʎ
r
Stops: p t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ š ž
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj̄ s z č ɡ̌
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1907
Language: Mari
Alternate Name: Cheremis
Dialect: Eastern
Location: W Russia (Mari ASSR)
Population: 546,000
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Volgaic
Dictionary: D: Marijsko-russkij slovar'. 1956. Moscow.
Grammar:
G: Sebeok, Thomas A. and Frances J. Ingemann. 1961. An Eastern Cheremis Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Kovedjaeva, E.I. 1966. "Lugovo-vostochnyj marijskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 221-40
Other Sources:
O: Minn, Eeva K. 1956. Studies in Cheremis, vol 4: Derivation. IJAL 22:2. Part II.
Ristinen, Elaine K. 1960. "An East Cheremis Phonology," in American Studies in Uralic Linguistics, Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
(t̪s) č
(f) s̪ š (x)
β ð z̪ ž ɣ
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l ʎ
ɾ
Stops: p t̪ k
Affricates: (t̪s) č
Fricatives: β (f) ð s̪ z̪ š ž (x) ɣ
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: num: s p
Demonstratives: dem: 2
Articles: art: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1908
Language: Mari
Alternate Name: Cheremis
Dialect: Western
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
(f) s̪ š (x)
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s č
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž (x)
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ t s...
cj t d ts s z n l r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Syntax: SVO/SOV AN GN DN/ND NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+N+D/Num+D+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1910
Language: Mordvin
Dialect: Moksha
Location: W Russia (W Mordvin ASSR)
Population: 1.3 million
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: Volgaic
Dictionary:
Potapkin, S.G. and A.K. Imjarekov. 1949. Mokshansko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Potapkin, S.G. and A.K. Imjarekov. 1961. Russko-mokshanskij slovar'. Moscow.
Grammar: Foektisov, A.P. 1966. "Mokshanskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 199-220.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
f s̪ š x
v z̪ ž
m n̪
l̪ ɬ̪
r r̥
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s č
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪ ɬ̪
Vibrants: r r̥
Modified Consonants: cj ̄ t d ts s z n l ɬ r r̥ j
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN/ND NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1911
Language: Northern Saami
Dialect: Ruija: Finnmark
Location: Norway
Population: 20,000
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic
Other Sources: SUL
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
ts tsh
f θ s š h
v ð
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph t th k kh
Affricates: ts tsh
Fricatives: f v θ ð s š h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all?
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: i æ a ʋ
Diphthongs: uo oa ie...
Stress: initial
Other Sources: Kert, G.M. 1961. Obraztsy sammskoj rechi. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž
m n n̥ ŋ
l l̥
r r̥
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n n̥ ŋ
Laterals: l l̥
Vibrants: r r̥
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but z zj ž žj
cj all but n̥
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o ɒ
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: ua uɛ ai ɛi ji o̜i ɒi, triph: uɛi uai
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic
Grammar: Collinder, Björn. 1949. The Lappish Dialect of Jukkasjärvi. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s h
β v ð ž
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: β f v ð s ž h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i (e)
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: diphthonɡs
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SVO NUM-N N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1914
Language: Northern Saami
Dialect: Lule
Location: Sweden
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1915
Language: Northern Saami
Dialect: Pite
Location: Sweden (Pite River), Norway
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1916
Language: Eastern Saami
Dialect: Inari
Location: Finland (Lake Inari)
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1917
Language: Eastern Saami
Dialect: Skolt
Location: Russia (Kola Peninsula)
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic
Other Sources: Hasselbrink, Gustav. 1965. Alternate Analyses of the Phonemic System in Central South-Lappish. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
d̪z ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
v
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ š h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: ie oa oe ue uo
Stress: initial
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1919
Language: Southern Saami
Dialect: Ume
Location: Sweden (Ume River)
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Saamic
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1920
Language: Finnish
Location: Finland
Population: 5 million
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Dictionary:
Vuolle, Aino. 1969. Finnish-English Dictionary. Porvoo, Finland: Werner Söderström.
Vuolle, Aino. 1964. English-Finnish Dictionary. Porvoo, Finland: Werner Söderström.
Grammar:
Austerlitz, Robert P. 1963. Finnish Grammar. Cleverland: Bell & Howell.
Atkinson, John. 1969. Finnish Grammar. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society.
Hakulinen, Lauri. 1957, 1960. Handbuch der finnischen Sprache, 2 vols. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
TextBooks:
Lehtinen, Meri. 1963. Basic Course in Finnish. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Whitney, Arthur H. 1968. Teach Yourself Finnish. New York: David Mckay.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k (ʔ)
(b) d̪ ɡ
(f) s (š) h
v
m n̪ ŋ
l̪
r
Stops: p (b) t̪ d̪ k ɡ (ʔ)
Fricatives: (f) v s (š) h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but d v h j
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: uo ie yø au ou eu iu æy øy ai oi ui æi øi yi
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2+REF
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3hH 6hH
Politeness: 2 intim & 2 pol [2 pol = 5]
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1921
Language: Ingrian
Location: NW Russia
Population: 350
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Grammar: Laanest, A. 1966. "Izhorskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 102-17.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
(f) s š h
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts č
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k s m n l r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: ̄v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai æi oi øi ui yi ei au ou eu iu æy øy
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO AN DN NUM-N POSS-N N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1922
Language: Karelian
Location: NW Russia
Population: 128,000
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Grammar: Makarov, G.N. 1966. "Karel'skij jazyk," in JNS 3, 61-80
Consonant system:
p t̪ t̪j k
b d̪ d̪j ɡ
(t̪s) č
ɡ̌
(f) s̪ s̪j š (x) h
v z̪ z̪j ž
m n̪ n̪j
l̪ l̪j
r rj
Stops: p b t̪ t̪j d̪ d̪j k ɡ
Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ s̪j z̪ z̪j š ž (x) h
Nasals: m n̪ n̪j
Laterals: l̪ l̪j
Vibrants: r rj
Modified Consonants: c̄ p t tj k č sj š m n nj l lj r rj
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: (v̄)
Diphthongs: diphthonɡs triphthonɡs
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2+ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3ai 6ai
Syntax: AN DN NUM-N N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1923
Language: Olonets
Alternate Name: Livvi
Location: NW Russia
Population: 80,000
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1924
Language: Ludic
Alternate Name: Ludian
Location: NW Russia
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1925
Language: Vepsian
Location: NW Russia (Karelian ASSR)
Population: 30,000
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Dictionary: Zajtseva, M.I. and M.I. Mullonen. 1972. Slovar' vepsskogo jazyka. Leningrad: Nauka.
Grammar: Xjamjaljajnen, M.M. 1966. "Vepsskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 81-101.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
(ɡ̌)
f s̪ š
v z̪ ž ɦ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s č (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž ɦ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ p t k s l m n
cj all but č š ž
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Diphthongs: ai ei ij oi ui æi øi yi au ou uw æu øu yu
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie*
2 5ie*
3 6ie*
*Vepsian has a special set of plural pronouns indicating membership in a group (e.g. family, home, village) (i.e. exclusive?) as opposed to the plain (inclusive?) forms.
Syntax: SVO/SOV AN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1926
Language: Votic
Location: NW Russia
Population: 100
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Grammar:
Adler, E. 1966. "Vodskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 118-37.
Ariste, Paul. 1968. A Grammar of the Votic Language. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s č
(ɡ̌)
(f) s̪ (š) (x) h
v z̪ (ž)
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s č (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ (š) (ž) (x) h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ p t k ts č f v s z š ž m n l r j
cj t d s z n l r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Central Vowels: (ɨ) ǝ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai oi ui ǝi æi ei øi yi au ou ǝu eu iu iæ yæ æy ey øy ua ǝa ia æu iy
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/(N-POSS)
Ergative:
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1927
Language: Estonian
Location: Estonian
Population: 1 million
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Dictionary:
Silvet, J. 1970. Eesti-inglise sõnaraamat. Tallinn: Kirjastus Eesti Raamat.
Silvet, J. 1956. Inglise-eesti sõnaraamat. Toronto: Eesti Kirjastus Orto.
Grammar:
Harms, Robert T. 1962. Estonian Grammar. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Ruan, Alo and Andrus Saareste. 1965. Introduction to Estonian Linguistics. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Kask, A.X. 1966. "Estonskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 35-60.
TextBooks: Oinas, Felix J. 1966. Basic Course in Estonian. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
p t tj k
(f) s sj (š) h
v
m n nj
l lj
r
Stops: p t tj k
Fricatives: (f) v s sj (š) h
Nasals: m n nj
Laterals: l lj
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ (lonɡ) all
c̄̄ (overlonɡ) all
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɤ
Long Vowels: v̄ (lonɡ) all, v̄̄ (overlonɡ) all
Diphthongs: diphthonɡs
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2* 5
3 6
*Politeness: 2 intim & 2 pol [2 pol = 5]
Syntax: SVO [At an earlier period the basic word order was SOV] AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST
Number: 1928
Language: Livonian
Alternate Name: Liv
Location: Latvia
Population: 500
Classification: Uralic: Finno-Ugric: Finnic: North Finnic: Baltic Finnic
Dictionary: Kettunen, Lauri. 1938. Livisches Wörterbuch. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
Grammar: Vjaari, E.E. 1966. "Livskij jazyk," in JNS 3, 138-54.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
(f) s š
v z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but dz ɡ̌ w
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ ɵ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but e o
Classification: Uralic: Yukaghir
Grammar:
Krejnovich, E.A. 1958. Jukagirskij jazyk. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Krejnovich, E.A. 1968. "Jukagirskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 435-52.
Other Sources:
AL 7:1.
CTIL 1, 366.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
s h
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj t d n l
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e ø o
a
Front Vowels: i e ø
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ie uo
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: mostly initial or second
Noun
Number: s [p] [pl rarely used]
Demonstratives: 4: this, that , yonder, that very far or invisible + REF
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N (N-POSS) D+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1891
Language: Chuvantsy
Location: NE Russia
Population: extinct
Classification: Uralic: Yukaghir
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1892
Language: Omok
Location: NE Russia
Population: extinct
Classification: Uralic: Yukaghir
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Алтайской семьи
Other Sources: Tsintsius, V.I. 1975. "On the Pre-Altaic System of Consonants,"
in Researches in Altaic Languages, ed. by Louis Ligeti, 299-306.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
b d ɡ
č čh
ɡ̌
s
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: s
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o
Long Vowels: v̄ The existance of v̄ in Altaic is a matter of dispute.
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1930
Language: Proto-Turkic
Location: C Asia
Classification: Altaic: Turkic
Grammar: Menges, Karl H. 1968. The Turkic Languages and Peoples. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s̪ š
z̪ ɣ
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l̪ lɯ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s̪ z̪ š ɣ
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ lɯ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: AN GN
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1931
Language: Old Turkic
Location: Mongolia
Population: (+)c.700 A.D.
Classification: Altaic: Turkic
Grammar: Tekin, Talaflt. 1968. A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
s̪ š
z̪
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: s̪ z̪ š
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y (e) ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: i y e ø u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: [pl is usually not indicated, though pl suffixes exist and are sometimes used for humans]
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Comments: Old Turkic (=Orkhon Turkic) was the official language of the second East Turkic Empire (c. 680-740 AD).
Other Sources: Krueger, John R. 1962. "Morphophonemic Change in Chuvash Verb Stems," in ASAL, 129-40.
Consonant system:
p t k
(b) (d) (ɡ)
(ts) č
(f) s š χ
v (z) (ž)
m n
l
r
Stops: p (b) t (d) k (ɡ)
Affricates: (ts) č
Fricatives: (f) v s (z) š (ž) χ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
cj ?
c̄ all
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i y ɯ u
e ǝ ɤ (o)
ɑ
Front Vowels: i y e
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u ɯ (o) ɤ ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final (non-reduced) vowel
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 4+ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1933
Language: Khalaj
Location: C Iran
Population: 20,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
č
(ɡ̌)
(f) s š h
v z (ž)
m n̪
l
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: č (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: (f) v s z š (ž) h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y œ æ
Back Vowels: u ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ œ u ɔ only
Diphthongs: diphthonɡs
Syntax: SOV
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1934
Language: Gagauz
Location: E Rumania
Population: 157,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern
Dictionary: Gajdarzhi, G.A. et al. 1973. Gagauzsko-russko-moldavskij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija.
Grammar:
Pokrovskaja, L.A. 1964. Grammatika gagauzskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.
Pokrovskaja, L.A. 1966. "Gagauzskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 112-38.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
(t̪s) č
ɡ̌
f s̪ š (x) h
v z̪ (ž)
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š (ž) (x) h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: diphthonɡs
Syllable: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2* 5*
*3* *6*
*Politeness: a polite/plain distinction for 2 3 5 6
Syntax: SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1935
Language: Turkish
Location: Turkey
Population: 40 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern
Dictionary:
Alderson, A.D. and Fahir Iz, eds. 1959. The Concise Oxford Turkish Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Grammar:
Swift, Lloyd B. 1963. A Reference Grammar of Modern Turkish. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Lewis, G.L. 1967. Turkish Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
TextBooks: Underhill, Robert. 1976. Turkish Grammar. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h (ch) kh (ʔ)
b d̪ (ɟ) ɡ
čh
ɡ̌
f s š h
v z ž
m n̪
l lɯ
ɾ
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ (ch) (ɟ) kh ɡ (ʔ)
Affricates: čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š (ž) h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I Y ɛ œ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1936
Language: Crimean Turkish
Location: Uzbekistan
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern
Grammar: Sevortjan, E.V. 1966. "Krymsko-tatarskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 234-59.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š x
v z ž ʁ
m n N
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ʁ
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3+ref
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1937
Language: Turkmen
Location: Turkmenistan
Population: 2 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern
Dictionary: Baskakov, N.A. and M.J. Xamzaev. 1956. Russko-turkmenskij slovar'. Moscow.
Grammar:
Azimov, P., D. Amansaryev and K. Saryev. 1966. "Turkmenskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 91-111.
Baskakov, N.A., M.J. Xamzaev and B. Charyjarov, eds. 1970. Grammatika turkmenskogo jazyka. Ashxaban: Ylym.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
(ts) č
ɡ̌
ɸ s š h
β z ž
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: ɸ β s z š ž h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: ɨ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: i y ø æ ɨ u o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s̪ š χ h
v z̪ ž ʁ
m n̪ N
l̪ lɯ
r̪ r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n̪ N
Laterals: l̪ lɯ
Vibrants: r̪ r
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: (PREP)/POST
Number: 1939
Language: Azerbaijani
Alternate Name: Azari
Location: Azerbaijan
Population: 7 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern
Dictionary:
Dzhafarov, S. 1959. Leksika sovremenogo azerbajdzhanskogo jazyka, Baku.
Grammar:
Gadzhieva, N.Z. 1966. "Azerbajdzhanskij jazyk," JNS 2, 66-90.
Shiraliev, M.S. and E.V. Sevortjan, eds. 1971. Grammatika azerbajdzhanskogo jazyka. Baku: Elm.
TextBooks: Householder, Fred W. 1965. Basic Course in Azerbaijani. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Other Sources: Alekperov, A.K. 1971. Fonematicheskaja sistema sovremennogo azerbajdzhanskogo jazyka. Baku: Elm.
Consonant system:
p t c k
b d ɟ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
(f) s š χ h
v z ž ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s z š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: (v̄)
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef?
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1940
Language: Qashqay
Location: SW Iran (Fars)
Population: 1.5 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Southern
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1941
Language: Uighur
Alternate Name: Uyghur
Location: W China (Sinkiang)
Population: 4 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Eastern
Dictionary:
Jarring, G. 1964. An Eastern Turki-English Dictionary. Lund.
Nadzhip, E.N. 1968. Ujgursko-russkij slovar. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija.
Grammar: Kaidarov, A.T. 1966. "Ujgurskij (novoujgskij) jazyk," in JNS 2, 363-86.
Other Sources:
Sadvakasov, G. 1970, 1976. Jazyk ujgurov ferganskoj doliny, 2 vols. Alma-Ata: Nauka.
WALS
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
ts č
ɡ̌
f s ̪ š χ h
v z̪ ž ʁ
m n N
l̪
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: ts č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2* 5
*3 *6
*Politeness: + 2 pol
Syntax: SOV
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Comments: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Number: 1942
Language: Uzbek
Location: Uzbekistan
Population: 10 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Eastern
Dictionary:
Waterson, Natalie. 1980. Uzbek-English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford Univ Press.
Russko-uzbekskij slovar'. 1954. Moscow.
Uzbeksko-russkij slovar'. 1959. Moscow.
Grammar:
Sjöberg, A. F. 1963. Uzbek Structural Grammar. The Hague.
Kononov, A.N. 1960. Grammatika sovremennogo uzbekskogo literaturnovo jazyka. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences.
Reshetov, V.V. 1966. "Uzbekskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 340-62.
Other Sources:
Wurm, Stefan. 1947. "The Uzbek Dialect of Qı̈zı̈l Qujaš ," BSOAS 12, 86-105.
Sjoberg, Andree F. 1962. "The Phonology of Standard Uzbek," in ASAL, 237-61.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q
b d̪ ɡ
(ts) č
ɡ̌
ɸ s š χ h
z (ž) ʁ
m n̪ ŋ
l̪
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: ɸ s z š (ž) χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɒ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1943
Language: Salar
Alternate Name: Yellow Uighur
Location: WC China (Qinghai)
Population: 39,000(35,000)
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Eastern
Dictionary: GD: Tenishev, E.R. 1976. Stroj salarskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh q qh
(č̣) (č̣h) č čh
f s sh (ṣ̌) š x χ h
v
m n ŋ
l lɯ
r
Stops: p ph t th k kh q qh
Affricates: (č̣) (č̣h) č čh
Fricatives: f v s sh (ṣ̌) š x χ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l lɯ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: (v̄)
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: VH
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+N
Ergative:
Consonant system:
ph th kh qh (ʔ)
b d ɡ
(ts) (č)
(f) θ s š x h
(v) ð z (ž) ʁ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ qh (ʔ)
Affricates: (ts) (č)
Fricatives: (f) (v) θ ð s z š (ž) x ʁ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø ɛ
Back Vowels: ʋ o ɤ ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2+ref
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1945
Language: Karachay
Location: SW Russia (Kirghiz SSR)
Population: 173,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western
Grammar: Xabichev, M.A. 1966. "Karachaevo-balkarskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 213-33.
Other Sources:
Hebert, Raymond J. 1962. "Karačay phonology,'' in ASAL, 97-113.
Aliev, U.B. 1972. Sintaksis karachaevo-balkarskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
(ts) č
ɡ̌
(f) s š x χ h
(v) z ž ʁ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž x χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1946
Language: Karaim
Dialect: Trakaj
Location: Lithuania
Population: 600 (400)
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western
Grammar:
Musaev, K.M. 1964. Grammatika karaimskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.
Musaev, K.M. 1966. "Karaimskij jazyka," in JNS 2, 260-79.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
̆̆(f) s s̄ χ h
(v) z (ž) ʁ
m n N
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) (v) s z s̄ (ž) χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2+ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SVO/SOV AN NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Comments: The Karaim....are by religion (though not ethnically) Jews, a unique survival of the adoption of Judaism as the official religion of the Khazar Empire. LSU, 47.
Number: 1947
Language: Karaim
Dialect: Galits
Location: S Ukraine
Population: 600 (200)
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western
Dictionary: Baskakov, N.A., A. Zajonchkovskij and C.M. Shapshal, eds. 1974. Karaimsko-russko-pol'skij slovar'. Moscow: Russkij Jazyk.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts
dz
(f) s (š) χ h
(v) z ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: (f) (v) s z (š) χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2+ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1948
Language: Kumyk
Location: SW Russia (Daghestan ASSR)
Population: 186,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western
Grammar: Magomedov, A.G. 1966. "Kumykskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 194-212.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q
b d̪ ɡ
(t̪s) č
(ɡ̌)
f s̪ š x h
v z̪ ž ɣ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q
Affricates: (t̪s) č (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: (ǝ)
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Consonant system:
p t k (q) ʔ
b d ɡ (G)
(ts) č
ɡ̌
f s š x h
(v) z ž
m n N
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ (q) (G) ʔ
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f (v) s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u o ɤ ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS D+Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1950
Language: Baraba
Location: SC Russia (SW Siberia)
Population: 5 million (8,000)
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Western
Grammar: Dmitrieva, L.V. 1966. "Jazyk barabinskix tatar," in JNS 2, 155-72.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ G
ts
(f) s š χ (h)
(v) (z) (ž)
m n N
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q G
Affricates: ts
Fricatives: (f) (v) s (z) š (ž) χ (h)
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Stress: final
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q
b d̪
(t̪s) (č)
(f) s̪ š x
(v) z̪ ž ɣ ʁ
m n̪ N
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k q
Affricates: (t̪s) (č)
Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ ʁ
Nasals: m n̪ N
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø (æ)
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1953
Language: Karakalpak
Location: Uzbekistan
Population: 230,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Central
Dictionary:
Baskakov, N.A. ed. 1947. Russko-karakalpakskij slovar'. Moscow.
Baskakov, N.A. ed. 1958. Karakalpaksko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Grammar:
GD: Baskakov, N.A. 1951, 1952. Karakalpakskij jazyk, 2 vols. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Baskakov, N.A. 1966. "Karakalpakskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 301-19.
Other Sources: Wurm, S. 1951. "The Karakalpak Language," Anthropos 46.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
(ts) (č)
(f) s š χ h
(v) z ž ʁ
m n N
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: (ts) (č)
Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2+ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2* 5
*3 *6
*Politeness: +2 pol
Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1954
Language: Kazakh
Location: Kazakhstan
Population: 5 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Central
Dictionary:
Musabaev, G.G. and X.X. Maxmudov. 1954. Kazaxsko-russkij slovar'. Alma-Ata.
Grammar:
Sovremennyj kazaxskij jazyk. 1962. Alma-Ata.
Kenesbaev, S.K. and N.B. Karasheva. 1966. "Kazaxskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 320-39.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q
b d̪ ɡ
(ts) (č)
(f) s̪ š χ h
(v) z̪ ž ʁ
m n N
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q
Affricates: (ts) (č)
Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1955
Language: Kirghiz
Location: Kyrgyzstan
Population: 1.5 million
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Central
Dictionary:
Jadaxin, K.K 1965. Kirgizsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
DG: Hebert, Raymond J. and Nicholas Poppe. 1963. Kirghiz Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Grammar:
Junusaliev, B.M. 1966. "Kirgizskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 482-505.
Wurm, Stefan. 1949. "The (Rara-) Kirghiz Language," BSOAS 13, 97-120.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
ts č
ɡ̌
(f) s š (x)
β z (ž) ʁ
m n N
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: ts č ɡ̌
Fricatives: β (f) s z š (ž) (x) ʁ
Nasals: m n N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 4 [this visible/that visible/ this invisible/ that invisible]+ref
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2* 5*
*3 *6
*Politeness: 2&5 each shows a polite/familiar distinction
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1956
Language: Yakut
Location: NE Russia (Yakut ASSR)
Population: 285,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Yakut
Dictionary:
Afanatsev, P.S. and L.N. Xaritonov, eds. 1968. Russko-jakutskij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija.
Sleptsov, P.A., ed. 1972. Jakutsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija.
Grammar:
Krueger, John R. 1962. Yakut Manual. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Ubrjatova, E.I. 1966. "Jakutskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 403-27.
Other Sources: WPF
Consonant system:
(ph) th kh
b d ɡ
čh
ɡ̌
s (š) χ (h)
ʁ
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: (ph) b th d kh ɡ
Affricates: čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: s (š) χ ʁ (h)
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but b d ɡ ʁ r j j̃
Glides: j ȷ̃
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ
Back Vowels: u ɯ ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ɯɑ ie uo yø
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1957
Language: Dolgan
Location: NE Russia (Yakut ASSR)
Population: 5,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Yakut
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b d̪ ɡ
(t̪s) č
ɡ̌
(f) s̪ (š) χ
(v) z̪ (ž) ʁ
m n̪ N
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ
Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ (š) (ž) χ ʁ
Nasals: m n̪ N
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y I e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but I
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1959
Language: Altai
Location: SC Russia (Altai Krai)
Population: 50,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai
Dictionary:
Baskakov, N.A., ed. 1964. Russko-altajskij slovar'. Moscow: Sovetskaja Entsiklopedija.
Baskakov, N.A. and T.M. Toshchakova. 1947. Ojrotsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Grammar:
Baskakov, N.A. 1958. Altajskij jazyk. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Baskakov, N.A. 1966. "Altajskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 506-22.
Other Sources: Simpson, C.G. 1955. Some Features of the Morphology of the Oirot (Gorno-Altai) Language. London: Central Asian Research Centre.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
(t̪s) č
ɡ̌
(f) s š (x)
(v) z ž ʁ
m n ŋ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž (x) ʁ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Consonant system:
p t k ɡ
č
s š
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p t k ɡ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: s š
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1961
Language: Chulym
Location: SC Russia (Chulym River)
Population: 48,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai
Dictionary: Dul'zon, A.P. 1966. "Chulymsko-tjurkskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 446-66.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ q ʔ
ts dz
β s z š ž ç x ɣ
m m̥ n ŋ
l l̥ lɯ l̥ɯ
r r̥
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: β s z š ž ç x ɣ
Nasals: m m̥ n ŋ
Laterals: l l̥ lɯ l̥ɯ
Vibrants: r r̥
Modified Consonants: cj
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i Y e ø ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ ɵ a
Back Vowels: u ʋ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ ɵ ʋ
Diphthongs: ɑj aj oj uj ɨj ʋj ɛj ou ua uɑ uʋ ye ie
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1962
Language: Shor
Location: SC Russia (Khakas A.O.)
Population: 15,000
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai
Grammar: Babushkin, G.F. and G.I. Donidze. 1966. "Shorskij jazyk," in JNS 2, 467-81.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q G
(t̪s) č ɡ̌
(f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž (x)
m n̪ ŋ
l̪̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q G
Affricates: (t̪s) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž (x)
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 4 [this/that there/that present/that absent]
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ k (Russian sources also give ph and th)
(ts) č
(f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž ɣ χ ʁ (h)
m n̪ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k (Russian sources also give ph and th)
Affricates: (ts) č
Fricatives: (f) (v) s̪ z̪ š ž ɣ χ ʁ (h)
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ
Back Vowels: u ɯ ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: (ṽ)
Modified Vowels: v̰(pharynɡealized) all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1964
Language: Karagas
Alternate Name: Tofa
Location: Russia
Population: 560
Classification: Altaic: Turkic: Common Turkic: Northern: Tuva-Altai
Dictionary: Rassadin, V.I. 1971. Fonetika i leksika tofalarskogo jazyka. Ulan-Ude: Burjatskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ q G ʔ
č ɡ̌
v s z š ž ɣ ʁ h
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q G ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s z š ž ɣ ʁ h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ
Back Vowels: u ɯ ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Modified Vowels: v̰ (pharynɡealized) all
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: AN GN
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1965
Language: Classical Mongolian
Location: Mongolia
Population: (+) c.1600 AD
Classification: Altaic: Mongolian
Grammar:
Poppe, Nicholas. 1964. Grammar of Written Mongolian. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Grønbech, Kaare and John R. Krueger. 1976. An Introduction to Classical (Literary) Mongolian. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Consonant system:
(p) b t d k ɡ q
č ɡ̌
(v) s š ɣ (h)
m n
l
r
Stops: (p) b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (v) s š ɣ (h)
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ʉ ɵ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p [pl not as comon as in other languages]
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Western
Grammar: Weiers, Michael. 1972. Die Sprache der Moghol der Provinz Herat in Afghanistan. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ q (ʔ)
č ɡ̌
f s (z) š x ʁ (h)
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q (ʔ)
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s (z) š x ʁ (h)
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j (w)
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Monguor
Grammar: Smedt, A. de and A. Mostaert. 1945. Le dialecte monguor. Peking: The Catholic Univ. [Reprinted 1964 by Indiana Univ., Bloomington]
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h k kh q
ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh
f s̪ ṣ ẓ š χ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh q
Affricates: ts tsh ṭs ṭsh č čh
Fricatives: f s̪ ṣ ẓ š χ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ɛ æ
Central Vowels: ʉ ɵ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Nasal Vowels: ṽ: æ a o
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1969
Language: Yellow Uighur
Alternate Name: West Yugur
Consonant system:
ph b th d ch ɟ ɡ qh
čh ɡ̌
f (v) s (z) š x h
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: ph b th d ch ɟ ɡ qh
Affricates: čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f (v) s (z) š x h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Other Sources:
Street, John C. 1962. "Kalmyk Shwa," in ASAL, 263-91.
Badmaev, B.B. 1966. Grammatika Kalmytskogo jazyka: morfologija. Elista: Kalmytskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo.
Consonant system:
(p) b t d k ɡ
ts č ɡ̌
β (f) s z š (ž) x ɣ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: (p) b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts č ɡ̌
Fricatives: β (f) s z š (ž) x ɣ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Other Sources: Buraev, I.D., T.P. Bazheeva and E.S. Pavlova. 1975. Atlas zvukov burjatskogo jazyka. Ulan-Ude: Burjatskoe Knizhnoe Izdatel'stvo.
Consonant system:
(p) b t d (k) ɡ
(ts) (č)
(f) (v) s z š ž x h
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: (p) b t d (k) ɡ
Affricates: (ts) (č)
Fricatives: (f) (v) s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj ?
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I y ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: i y ø ɛ u ɔ ɑ
Diphthongs: æɛ ɔɛ ʋI yi
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial, or on first long vowel
Noun
Number: s [p]
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1975
Language: Khalkha
Location: Mongolia
Population: 1 million
Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Khalkha-Buriat
Dictionary:
Lessing, F.D. et al. 1960. Mongolian-English Dictionary. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
Hangin, John G. 1970. A Concise English-Mongolian Dictionary. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Grammar:
Street, John C. 1963. Khalkha Structure. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Bosson, James E. 1964. Modern Mongolian: A Primer and Reader. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Poppe, Nicholas. 1970. Mongolian Language Handbook. Washington, D.C.: CAL.
TextBooks: Hangin, John G. 1968. Basic Course in Mongolian. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
(ph) t̪h (kh)
b d̪ ɡ
tsh čh
dz ɡ̌
(ɸ) s š x
β
m n̪ ŋ
l̪ (ɬ)
r
Stops: (ph) b t̪h d̪ (kh) ɡ
Affricates: tsh dz čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: (ɸ) β s š x
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ (ɬ)
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i ʉ u
e ǝ ɵ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ʉ ǝ ɵ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄: all but ǝ
Diphthongs: ae oe ʉi ia io iu ui
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p [pl used less than in Western languages]
Demonstratives: 2
Other Sources:
Bosson, James and B. Unensečen. 1962. "Some Notes on the Dialect of the Khorchin Mongols," in ASAL, 23-44.
E
Consonant system:
ph b t̪h d̪ ɟ ɡ
s̪ š h
m n̪ ŋ
l
r
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ ɟ ɡ
Fricatives: s̪ š h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ø
Central Vowels: ǝ ɵ
Back Vowels: u o ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels: i y e ø ǝ ɵ u o ɔ ɑ
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1977
Language: Ordos
Location: China (Sui Yang)
Population: 375,000
Classification: Altaic: Mongolian: Eastern: Oirat-Khalkha: Khalkha-Buriat
Dictionary: Mostaert, Antoine 1941. Dictionnaire ordos. Peking: The Catholic Univ. [Reprinted 1968 by Johnson Reprinted, New York]
Grammar: Soulié, G. 1903. Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Consonant system:
p ph b t th k kh ɡ q G
ts č čh kx
f s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
m n ŋ
l l̥
r r̥
Stops: p ph b t th k kh ɡ q G
Affricates: ts č čh kx
Fricatives: f s z š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l l̥
Vibrants: r r̥
Glides: j w w̥
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø œ æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN NUM-N POSS-N
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 1978
Language: Even
Location: NE Russia (NE Yakut ASSR)
Population: 9,000
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern
Dictionary:
Tsintsius, V.I. and L.D. Rishes. 1952. Russko-evenskij slovar'. Moscow.
GD: Benzing, J. 1955. Lamutische Grammatik mit Bibliographie, Sprachproben und Glossar. Wiesbaden.
Grammar:
Novikova, K.A. 1960. Ocherki dialektov evenskogo jazyka. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Novikova K.A. 1968. "Evenskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 88-108.
Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Das Lamutische," in Altaistik, vol 3, 92-129.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s h
v
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ t d k č n ŋ r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ i e u o
Modified Vowels:
ḭ æ̰
ḭ̄ ā̰ ǣ̰
a̤ ṳ o̤
ṳ̄ ō̤
(v̰ = 'hard' vowel: all vowels belong to either the hard or soft series. Compared to soft vowels, hard vowels: (1) are drawn back, (2) more tense, (3) have a lower timbre and in some dialects (4) are pharyngealized)
Diphthongs: ie iæ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: on last v̄, if no v̄, on last v
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1979
Language: Negidal
Location: SE Russia (Xabarovskij Krai)
Population: 350
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern
Grammar: Kolesnikova, V.D. and O.A. Konstantinova. 1968. "Negidal'skij jazyk," in JNS 5, 109-28.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ
č ɡ̌
(f) s x
m n ñ ŋ
l
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) s x
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ ɵ
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: i I e æ ɵ a u o ɔ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1980
Language: Evenki
Alternate Name: Khamnigan
Location: E Russia (Yakut ASSR)
Population: 32,000
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Northern
Dictionary:
Vasilevich, G.M. 1958. Evenkijsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Kolesnikova, V.D. and O.A. Konstantinova. 1960. Russko-evenkijskij slovar'. Leningrad.
Grammar:
Konstantinova. O.A. 1968. "Evenkijskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 68-87.
Konstantinova, O.A. 1964. Evenkijskij jazyk. Moscow.
Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Das Ewenki," in Altaistik, vol 3, 42-92.
Other Sources: Kolesnikova, V.D. 1966. Sintaksis evenkijskogo jazyka. Moscow: Nauka.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ
(ts) č ɡ̌
β (f) s (z) (š) (ž) x
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: β (f) s (z) (š) (ž) x
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i æ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: i e æ ǝ u o
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southwestern
Grammar:
Pashkov, B.K. 1963. Manchzhurskij jazyk. Moscow: Izdatel'stvo vostochnoj literatury.
Sinor, Denis. 1968. "La langue mandjoue," in Altaistik, vol 3, 257-80.
Other Sources: Austin, William M. 1962. "The Phonemics and Morphophonemics of Manchu," in ASAL, 15-22.
Consonant system:
p ph t̪ t̪h k kh
č čh
f v s̪ (z̪) š (ž) x
m n̪ ŋ
l̪
r
Stops: p ph t̪ t̪h k kh
Affricates: č čh
Fricatives: f v s̪ (z̪) š (ž) x
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɵ a
Back Vowels: u o
Diphthongs: aj oj ej uj
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s p [pl suffix only used for humans, living things, kin terms, etc]
Demonstratives: 2
Other Sources:
Norman, Jerry. n.d. "Swadesh List in Manchu and Sibe," Unicorn 3, 89-98. Princeton: Chinese Linguistics Project.
Norman, Jerry. 1974. "A Sketch of Sibe Morphology," Central Asiatic Journal 18, 159-74.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh q
č čh qχ
f v s (š) x χ
m n ŋ N
l
ɾ
Stops: p ph t th k kh q
Affricates: č čh qχ
Fricatives: f v s (š) x χ
Nasals: m n ŋ N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: ai au ia ua ǝi ǝu iɛ yɛ oi io ui
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s [p] [pl generally limited to humans]
Demonstratives: 2
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj
Dictionary:
Onenko, S.N. 1959. Russko-nanajskij slovar'. Leningrad.
Petrova, T.I. 1960. Nanajsko-russkij slovar'. Leningrad.
Grammar:
Avrorin, V.A. 1959, 1961. Grammatika nanajskogo jazyka, 2 vols. Moscow: Academy of Sciences.
Avrorin, V.A. 1968. "Nanajskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 129-48.
Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Die Sprache der Nānaj (Goldi)," in Altaistik, vol 3, 171-246.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ
č ɡ̌
s x
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s x
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ḛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a̰
Back Vowels: u o̰
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Diphthongs:
iǝ iu ia io ǝu ǝi ai ao ui uǝ oi oa
iǝ̃ iũ iã iõ ǝũ ǝĩ aĩ aõ uĩ uǝ̃ oĩ oã
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ
č ɡ̌
(f) v s x
m n ñ ŋ
l
(r)
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s x
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: (r)
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s [p] [pl suffix exists, but is not usually used]
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1992
Language: Orok
Location: SE Russia (Saxalin Is.)
Population: 400
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Nanaj
Grammar:
Petrova, T.I. 1967. Jazyk orokov (ul'ta). Leningrad: Nauka.
Petrova, T.I. 1968. "Orokskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 172-90.
Other Sources: Ikegami, J. 1956. "The Substantive Inflection of Orok," Gengo Kenkyu 30.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ
č ɡ̌
s x
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s x
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ t k m n l r w
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: i e ɛ ǝ a u o ɔ
Noun
Number: s [p] [pl suffix exists, but is seldom used]
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Udihe
Dictionary: Leontovich, S. 1896. Russko-orochenskij slovar'. Vladivostok.
Grammar: Avrorin, V.A. and E.P. Lebedeva. 1968. "Orochskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 172-90.
Other Sources: Lopatin, I. 1957. Material on the Orochee Language. Fribourg.
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v s x ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s x ɣ
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ p b k ɡ č m n ŋ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u ʋ o
Long Vowels: i æ ǝ a u ʋ o
Diphthongs: iǝ ia iu æi æa æʋ ǝi ǝu ai aʋ ui uǝ ʋi ʋa oi
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s [p] [pl forms used extremely rarely]
Demonstratives: 4?
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN/(NA) GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1995
Language: Udihe
Location: SE Russia (Xabarovskij Krai)
Population: 1,400
Classification: Altaic: Tungus: Southern: Southeastern: Udihe
Dictionary: Shnejder, E.R. 1936. Kratkij udegejsko-russkij slovar'. Moscow.
Grammar:
Sunik, O.P. 1968. "Udegejskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 210-32.
Menges, Karl H. 1968. "Die Sprache der Udihe," in Altaistik, vol 3, 129-71.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ
č ɡ̌
f s x ɣ h
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l
(ɾ)
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: (ɾ)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i (y) e ø ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s [p] [pl suffix exists, but is not normally used]
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1996
Language: Korean
Location: Korea
Population: 55 million
Classification: Altaic: Korean-Japanese
Grammar: Rogers, M.C. 1956. Outline of Korean Grammar. n.p.:n.p.
Other Sources:
Olmsted, D.L. 1963. Korean Folkore Reader. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Han, Mieko S. 1963. Acoustic Phonetics of Korean. Los Angles: Univ. of California.
Cho, Seung-Bog. 1967. A Phonological Study of Korean. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells.
Hwang, Shin Ja Joo. 1975. Korean Clause Structure. SIL 50.
AL 7:1
Martin, Samuel E. 1951. "Korean Phonemics," Lg 27, 519-33.
Consonant system:
p ph pʔ t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ k kh kʔ ʔ
č čh čʔ
s sʔ h
m n̪ ŋ
l
Stops: p ph pʔ t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ k kh kʔ ʔ
Affricates: č čh čʔ
Fricatives: s sʔ h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i (y) e ø æ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o ɤ
Long Vowels: (v̄)
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
politeness: yes
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N/(N-NUM) POSS-N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Comments:
The glottalized series of consonants is variously described as (1) long, (2) tense,
(3) accompanied by glottal tension, though the glottal catch is apparently nowhere near as pronounced as in typical Amerindian or Caucasian ejectives.
Number: 1997
Language: Japanese
Location: Japan
Population: 115 million
Classification: Altaic: Korean-Japanese
Dictionary: Okakura, Y., ed. 1945. New English-Japenese Dictionary. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
Grammar:
Martin, Samuel E. 1975. A Reference Grammar of Japanese. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.
Other Sources:
Harada, Tetsuo. 1966. Outlines of Modern Japanese Linguistics. Tokyo: Nihon Univ.
Kuno, Susumu. 1973. The Structure of the Japanese Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k (ʔ)
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s š h
z
m n̪ (ŋ)
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ (ʔ)
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z š h
Nasals: m n̪ (ŋ)
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k č s š
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i ɯ
e o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ɯ o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)(G)V, ŋ̟
Tones: pitch accent: hi lo
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mfn *6hH
politeness: many honorific forms
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 1998
Language: Ryukyuan
Dialect: Central
Location: Japan (Okinawa)
Classification: Altaic: Korean-Japanese
Other Sources: AL 7:1
Consonant system:
p b t d k ɡ ʔ
ts
s z h
m n
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts
Fricatives: s z h
Nasals: m n
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Other Sources: Martin, Samuel E. 1970. "Shodon: A Dialect of the Northern Ryukyus," JAOS 90, 97-139.
Consonant system:
p t̪ t̪h k kh kʷ khʷ ʔ ʔʷ
b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ
ɸ s̪ h
(z̪)
m n̪
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ kʷ khʷ ɡʷ ʔ ʔʷ
Fricatives: ɸ s̪ (z̪) h
Nasals: m n̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Tones: hi mid low
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4
2* 5*
3 6
politeness: honorific forms for 2 & 5
Syntax: SOV AN
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Краткие типологические обзоры айнских диалектов
Number: 2000
Language: Ainu
Dialect: Hokkaido
Location: N Japan (Hokkaido)
Population: 15
Classification: Eurasiatic
Dictionary: Hattori, Shirô, ed. 1964. An Ainu Dialect Dictionary. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
Grammar: Patrie, James. 1982. The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language. Honolulu: Univ Press of Hawaii.
Other Sources: Pilsudski, Bronislaw. 1912. Materials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore. Cracow: Academy of Sciences.
Simeon, George. 1969. "Hokkaido Ainu Phonemics," JAOS 89, 751-7
Simeon, George. 1976. "The Hokkaido Ainu Copula," Linguistics 169, 63-6.
Peng, Fred C.C. and Peter Geiser. 1977. The Ainu: The Past in the Present. Hiroshima: Bunda Hyoron.
AL 7:1
Consonant system:
p t k (ʔ)
č
s h
m n
ɾ
Stops: p t k (ʔ)
Affricates: č
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄ p t k s m n
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony ?
Diphthongs: wa wo we ja jo je aw ew uw iw aj oj ej uj jaj
Other Sources:
Jakobson, Roman. 1957. "Notes on Gilyak," in Studies Presented to Yuen Ren Chao on his Sixty-fifth Birthday, 255-81.
AL 7:1
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh q qh
b d ɡ G
č čh
ɡ̌
f s x χ h
v z ɣ ʁ
m n ñ ŋ
l
r ř(=rž)
Stops: p ph b t th d k kh ɡ q qh G
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ř(=rž)
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: (v̄)
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
Stress: free, but often initial
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 5: this, that, that further away, that absent, that way yonder
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Чукче-камчатской семьи
Number: 2003
Language: Chukchi
Location: NE Russia (Chukchi Peninsula)
Population: 11,000
Classification: Chukchi-Kamchatkan: Northern
Dictionary: Moll, T.A. and P.I. Inenlikej. 1957. Chukotsko-russkij slovar'. Leningrad.
Grammar:
Skorik, P.J. 1961. Grammatika chukotskogo jazyka, Part I. Moscow.
Sokrik, P.J. 1968. "Chukotskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 248-70.
Other Sources:
Bogoras, W. 1922. "Chukchee," in Handbook of American Indian Lanugages, ed. by Franz Boas, Washington.
CTIL 1, 359.
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
ts (used only by women) č
ɣ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p t k q ʔ
Affricates: ts (used only by women) č
Fricatives: ɣ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ t k q m n ŋ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e ǝ o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: penult & final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO(ERG)/SOV(NOM) AN GN DN NUM-N
Ergative: ERG
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
č̌
h
(ɣ)
m n ŋ
l
(r)
Stops: p t k q ʔ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: (r)
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ h
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
ǝ
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
č̌
(f)
v ɣ ʁ
m n ŋ
l
Stops: p t k q ʔ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: (f) v ɣ ʁ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but v j ʁ
cj t n l
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e (ǝ) o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C), but no CCVCC
Stress: tendency toward penult
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 3
Articles: def indef
Other Sources: Mel'č̌uk, Igor A. and Elena N. Savvina. 1978. "Toward a Formal Model of Alutor Surface Syntax: Predicative and Completive Constructions," Linguistics, Special Issue, 5-39.
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
č
s
v ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p t k q ʔ
Affricates: č
Fricatives: v s ɣ
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
ǝ
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u
Stress: mostly second, sometimes initial
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SVO AN
Ergative: ERG
Noun Incorporation: NOUN INCORP
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 2007
Language: Kamchadal
Alternate Name: Itelmen
Location: E Russia (W Kamchatkan Peninsula)
Population: 400
Classification: Chukchi-Kamchatkan: Southern
Dictionary: Worth, Dean S. 1969. Dictionary of Western Kamchadal. UCPL 59.
Grammar: Volodin, A.P. and A.N. Zhukova. 1968. "Itel'menskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 334-51.
Other Sources: Worth, Dean Stoddard. 1961. Kamchadal Texts Collected by W. Jochelson. The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p pʔ t tʔ k kʔ q qʔ ʔ
č čʔ
f s x χ
v z ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l ɬ ʎ
r
Stops: p pʔ t tʔ k kʔ q qʔ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ
Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ χ
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ k č s z ɣ m n ñ l w
Glides: j w w̥
Vowel system:
i u
e o
a ɑ
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Syntax: SOV AN GN/NG DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative: ERG
Noun Incorporation: NOUN INCORP
Prep/Post: /POST
Comments: all bilingual in Russian
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Эскимо-алеутской семьи
Number: 2008
Language: Aleut
Location: SW Alaska (Aleutian Islands)
Population: 600
Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Aleut
Grammar:
GD: Geoghegan, Richard Henry. 1944. The Aleut Language. Washington, D,C.: Dept of the Interior.
Menovshchikov, G.A. 1968. "Aleutskij jazyk" in JNS 5, 386-406.
Consonant system:
(p) t k q
(b)
s x χ h
ð ɣ ʁ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
r
(in some dialects p > m, b > w)
Stops: (p) (b) t k q (in some dialects p > m, b > w)
Fricatives: ð s x ɣ χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: >20, +e.g This, that near visible, that inside, that far visible, that invisible, that above, that outside, that far away, that underneath, that not far away, that going past, that invisible far in time or space, that above close, that lying nearby, that
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV NA GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative: ERG
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 2009
Language: Proto-Eskimo
Location: Alaska
Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo
Other Sources: Swadesh, Morris. 1952. "Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo IV: Diachronic Notes," IJAL 18, 166-71.
Consonant system:
p t k q
v s ɣ ʁ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
Stops: p t k q
Fricatives: v s ɣ ʁ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 2010
Language: Alaskan Inuit
Location: Alaska
Population: 65,000
Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Inuit
Consonant system:
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 2011
Language: Canadian Inuit
Dialect: Labrador Inuttut
Location: E Canada (Labrador)
Population: 65,000
Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Inuit
Grammar: Spalding, A.E. 1969. Salliq: An Eskimo Grammar. Ottawa: Education Branch, Dept. of Indian Affairs.
TextBooks: Webster, Donald H. 1968. Let's Learn Eskimo. Fairbanks: SIL.
Consonant system:
p t k
s χ (h)
v ɣ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
(ɹ̣)
Stops: p t k
Fricatives: v s ɣ χ (h)
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: (ɹ̣)
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but v s ɣ
Glides: j
Vowel system:
I ʋ
ɐ
Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ā ū
Noun
Number: s d p
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV GN N-POSS
Ergative:
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 2012
Language: Greenlandic
Dialect: West Greenlandic
Location: W Greenland
Population: 65,000
Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Inuit
Other Sources:
Mase, Hideo and Jørgen Rischel,1972. "A Study of Consonant Quantity in West Greenlandic," IJDL 1:2, 138-95.
WALS
Consonant system:
p t k q
s š
ɣ ʁ
m n ŋ
l
Stops: p t k q
Fricatives: s š ɣ ʁ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but j
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai only
Other Sources:
Miyaoka, Osahito. 1971. "On Syllable Modification and Quantity in Yuk," IJAL 37, 219-26.
Swedish, Morris. 1951-2. "Unaaliq and Proto Eskimo I-III," IJAL 17, 66-70; 18, 25-34, & 69-76.
Consonant system:
p t k q
č
f v š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
Stops: p t k q
Affricates: č
Fricatives: f v š ž x ɣ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: i a u
Other Sources: Krauss, Michael E. 1976. "Eskimo-Aleut," in NLA 1, 191.
Consonant system:
p t k kʷ q qʷ
f v s z x ɣ xʷ ɣʷ χ ʁ χʷ ʁʷ (h)
m m̥ n n̥ ŋ ŋ̥ ŋʷ ŋ̥ʷ
l ɬ
r r̥
Stops: p t k kʷ q qʷ
Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ xʷ ɣʷ χ ʁ χʷ ʁʷ (h)
Nasals: m m̥ n n̥ ŋ ŋ̥ ŋʷ ŋ̥ʷ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r r̥
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels:
u
Long Vowels: i a u
Ergative:
Prep/Post:
Number: 2017
Language: Chaplino
Dialect: Siberian
Location: NE Russia (Siberia)
Population: 1,700
Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Siberian
Grammar:
Menovshchikov, G.A. 1954. Eskimossko-russkij slovar'. Leningrad.
Menovshehikov, G.A. 1962,1967. Grammatika jazyka aziatskix eskimosov, 2 vols. Moscow.
Menovshchikov, G.A. 1968. "Eskimosskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 366-85.
Consonant system:
p t k q
f v s z š x ɣ χ ʁ
m n n̥ ŋ
l ɬ
r
Stops: p t k q
Fricatives: f v s z š x ɣ χ ʁ
Nasals: m n n̥ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 20: see the St. Lawrence Island dialect.
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative: ERG
Prep/Post: /POST
Number: 2018
Language: Naukan
Location: NE Russia (Siberia)
Population: 1,700
Classification: Eskimo-Aleut: Eskimo: Yupik: Siberian
Grammar: GD: Menovshchikov, G.A. 1975. Jazyk naukanskix eskimosov. Leningrad: Nauka.
Consonant system:
p t k q
v s x ɣ χ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
r
Stops: p t k q
Fricatives: v s x ɣ χ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: ʋi au ei iu eu ea ...
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Noun
Number: s d p
Demonstratives: 20: (1) this close, (2) that in front, (3) this nearby, (4) that in the water, (5) that behind above, (6) that below, (7) that above, (8) that invisible, (9) that outside, (10) that outside close by, (11) that inside, (12) that invisible far away, (13) that behind not far, (14) that unknown, (15) that way above, (16) that on the mountain, (17) that far away, (18) that going past, (19) that drawing near, (20) that to the side
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Ergative: ERG
Prep/Post: /POST
Comments: Spoken in Siberia and on St. Lawrence Island, this the only language native to bother hemispheres. The Russian and American groups have, however, been isolated from each other since the inception of the Cold War in 1947.
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Дравидической семьи
Number: 2020
Language: Proto-Dravidian
Location: India
Classification: Dravidian
Other Sources:
Emeneau, M. B. 1970. Dravidian Comparative Phonology: A Sketch. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.
Pfeiffer, Martin. 1972. Elements of Kurux Historical Phonology. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Zvelebil, Kamil V. 1974. "Dravidian Languages," EB 5, 989-92.
Consonant system:
p t̪ t ṭ k
č
v
m n ṇ ñ
l ḷ
ɾ ɹ̣
Stops: p t̪ t ṭ k
Affricates: č
Fricatives: v
Nasals: m n ṇ ñ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: ɾ ɹ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: sing: masc, non-masc; pl: hum, non-hum
Syntax: SOV
Number: 2021
Language: Brahui
Location: SW Pakistan (N Baluchistan)
Population: 300,000
Classification: Dravidian: Northwest
Other Sources:
Emeneau, M. B. 1962. Brahui and Dravidian Comparative Grammar. UCPL 27.
De Armond, Richard C. 1971. "The Grammatical Morphemes of the Brahui Verb," IL 32, 91-106.
De Armond, Richard C. 1975. "Some Rules of Brahui Conjugation," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 242-98.
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k ʔ
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž ɣ
m n
l ḷ
r ɾ̣
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Vowel system:
i u
a
Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ō ū
Other Sources:
Pfeiffer, Martin. 1972. Elements of Kurux Historical Phonology. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Gordon, Kent H. and Kenneth L Pike. 1973. "Paired Semantic Components," in PCSD I, 313-43.
Gorden, Kent H. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Dhangar-Kurux," in PCSD II, 37-121.
Consonant system:
p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ ʔ
č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
s x h
m n (ṇ) ŋ
l
r ṛ (ṛ̤)
Stops: p ph b b̤ t th d d̤ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍ̤ k kh ɡ ɡ̤ ʔ
Affricates: č čh ɡ̌ ɡ̤̌
Fricatives: s x h
Nasals: m n (ṇ) ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ṛ (ṛ̤)
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all but ǝ
v̄̃ all but ǝ
Diphthongs: ai au
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: masc non-masc (fem gender=neuter in the sing, = masc in the plural) (N=fem+neut)
Demonstratives: 3
Classification: Dravidian: Northeast
Grammar: Das, A. Sisir Kumar. 1973. Structure of Malto. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.
Other Sources: Mahapatra, Bijay P. 1973. "Malto Object Classifiers," IL 34, 191-9.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ c j k ɡ q G
θ s̪ h
m n̪ N
l
r ɾ̣
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ c ɟ k ɡ q G
Fricatives: θ s̪ h
Nasals: m n̪ N
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄ p b t ḍ c ɟ k q s ɾ̣ n l j
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
Stress: non-phonemic (on v̄)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: masc non-masc (= f+n)
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3mM *6mM
m=masc M=non-masc
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+NUM+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 2024
Language: Kolami
Location: C India (N Andhra Pradesh)
Population: 50,000
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji
Grammar: GD: Emeneau, M. B. 1955. Kolami, A Dravidian Language. UCPL 12.
Other Sources:
McNair, Norman and Helen McNair. 1973. "Clause Patterns in Kolami," in PCSD II, 123-90.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
(ts) č ɡ̌
v s z (h)
m n̪ ŋ
l (ḷ)
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: (ts) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s z (h)
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l (ḷ)
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but z ŋ j
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)C(N)(C)(C)(C)
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: masc non-masc
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3mM *6mM
[M=non-masc = f+n]
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 2025
Language: Naiki
Location: C India (NE Maharashtra)
Population: 1,500
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 2026
Language: Parji
Location: EC India (SE Madhya Pradesh)
Population: 25,000
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji
Grammar: GD: Burrow, T. and S. Bhattacharya. 1953. The Parji Language. Hertford: Stephen Austin & Sons.
Other Sources:
Shanmugam, R. 1969. "Phonology and Noun Morphology of Parji," in Dravidian Linguistics: Seminar Papers, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and N. Kumaraswami, 177-86.
Khrishnamurti, B. 1978. "On Diachronic and Synchronic Rules in Phonology," IL 39, 252-76.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v (s) (h)
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l
r ɾ̣
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v (s) (h)
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but b t s h ɾ̣ j
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Nasal Vowels:
(ṽ)
(v̄̃)
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: masc non-masc [=f+n]
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3mM *6mM
M=non-masc = f+n
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 2027
Language: Gadaba
Dialect: Ollari
Location: EC India (S Orissa)
Population: 8,800
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Kolami-Parji
Grammar: Bhattacharya, Sudhibhushan. 1957. Ollari: A Dravidian Speech. Delhi: Government of India.
Other Sources: AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
(ts) (dz) č ɡ̌
v s z
m n̪ ṇ (ñ) ŋ
l
r ɾ̣
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: (ts) (dz) č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s z
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ (ñ) ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: (ṽ)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: masc non-masc
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mM 6mM
M=non-masc
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 2028
Language: Gondi
Location: C India (SE Madhya Pradesh)
Population: 1.5 million
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Gondi-Koya
Grammar: GD: Subrahmanyam P. S. 1968. A Descriptive Grammar of Gondi. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.
Other Sources: Pandurangachar. 1975. "Pronouns in Gondi," IL 36, 203-11.
Consonant system:
p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h (t̪ʔ) ṭ ṭh ḍ d̪̤ k kh k (k̪̪̪ʔ) ɡ ɡ̤
ts tsh dz dz̤
β s h
m n ṇ ŋ
l
ɾ
Stops: p ph b b̤ t̪ t̪h (t̪ʔ) ṭ ṭh ḍ d̪̤ k kh k (k̪ʔ) ɡ ɡ̤
Affricates: ts tsh dz d̤z
Fricatives: β s h
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but s ŋ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: masc non-masc
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mM *6mM
[M=non-masc]
Syntax: SOV AN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 2029
Language: Koya
Location: C India (Andhra Pradesh)
Population: 170,000
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Gondi-Koya
Grammar: Tyler, Stephen A. 1969. Koya: An Outline Grammar. UCPL 54.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
β s ɦ
m n ṇ
l
ɾ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: β s ɦ
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ɦ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)(C)
Stress: non-phonemic (on long syllables)
Consonant system:
p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ
ts dz
v s z
m n ṇ ŋ
l
r̪ r ṛ
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: v s z
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r̪ r ṛ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: ı̃̄ ȭ
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Konda-Kui
Grammar: GD: Burrow, T. and S. Bhattacharya. 1970. The Pengo Language. Oxford. Clarendon Press.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
t̪s d̪z
s̪ z̪ h
m n̪ ṇ ŋ
l̪
r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: t̪s d̪z
Fricatives: s̪ z̪ h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄ "Long consonants are common in Pengo, but they always result from the combination of roots and affixes." p. 18
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3mfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Comments: All Bilingual in Oriya.
Number: 2033
Language: Kui
Location: EC India (NW Orissa)
Population: 510,000
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Konda-Kui
Dictionary: Winfield, W. W. 1929. A Vocabulary of the Kui Language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Grammar: Winfield, W. W. 1928. A Grammar of the Kui Language. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press.
Other Sources: Watkin, K. L. 1975. "Some Phonological Rules for the Kui Verb," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 375-89.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
ɡ̌
β s ṣ h
m n ṇ
l ḷ
r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Fricatives: β s ṣ h
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ṛ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: masc, non-masc [=f+n]
Demonstratives: 4 (3 + that over there)
Articles: indef
Other Sources: Ramakrishna Reddy, B., Susheela P. Upadhyaya and Joy Reddy. 1974. Kuvi Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ
ts dz
v s h
m n ṇ ŋ
l
ɾ ɾ̣
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: v s h
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all
Syntax: SOV
Number: 2035
Language: Telugu
Location: SC India (Andhra Pradesh)
Population: 50 million
Classification: Dravidian: Central: Telugu-Kui: Telugu
Grammar: DG: Polkam, D. B. 1971. Merolu Telugu. Poona: Deccan College.
TextBooks:
Lisker, Leigh. 1963. Introduction to Spoken Telugu. Poona: Deccan College.
Krishnamurti, B. and P. Sivananda Sarma. 1968. A Basic Course in Modern Telugu. Hyderabad.
Subrahmanyam, P. S. 1974. An Introduction to Modern Telugu. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.
Other Sources:
Kelley, Gerald. 1958. "Telugu Vowel Phonemes," IL 18, 146-58.
Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju. 1961. Telugu Verbal Bases. UCPL 24.
Murti, K. V. S. 1972. "Telugu Syntax: A Brief Description," Linguistics 81, 49-82.
Venkateswara Sastry, J. 1972. Telugu Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ d̪ (d̤̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤)
č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌)
(f) v s ṣ š h
m n̪ ṇ
l ḷ
ɾ
Stops: p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ d̪ (d̤̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤)
Affricates: č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌)
Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ š h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au ao ia
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tulu
Dictionary: Mariappa Bhat, M. and A. Shanker Kedilaya. 1967. Tulu-English Dictionary. Madras: Univ of Madras.
Grammar: Bhat, D. N. Shankara. 1967. Descriptive Analysis of Tulu. Poona: Deccan College.
Other Sources:
Ayyer, L. V. Ramaswami. 1932. "Tulu Prose Texts in Two Dialects," BSOAS 6, 897-931.
Aiyar, L. V. Ramaswamy. 1936. "Materials for a Sketch of Tulu Phonology," IL 6, 84-127.
Kölver, Bernhard. 1969. Tulu Texts. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.
Bhatt, Sooda Lakshminarayana. 1975. "Inflection in the Tulu Noun," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol E. Eastman, 180-96.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v s̪ ṣ š h
m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
l̪ ḷ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s̪ ṣ š h
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪ ḷ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ṣ š h ñ ŋ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ɯ
Nasal Vowels: ã
Diphthongs: ai
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tulu
Dictionary: Bhat, D. N. S. 1971. The Koraga Language. Poona: Deccan College.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v s
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ŋ v s
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ɯ
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: hum., non-hum
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf
Syntax: SOV
Number: 2040
Language: Kannada
Location: SW India (Mysore)
Population: 25 million
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Kannada
Dictionary: Kittel, Ferdinand. 1894. Kannada-English Dictionary, 4 vols. Mangalore: Basel Massion Book and Tract Depository. [Reprinted 1968 by the Univ of Madras]
Grammar:
Bright, William. 1958. An Outline of Colloquial Kannada. Poona: Deccan College.
Jensen, Hans. 1969. Grammatik der kanaresischen Schriftsprache. Leizig: VEB Verlag.
Hiremath, R. C. 1961. THe Structure fo Kannada. Dharwar: Karnatak Univ.
GD: Bhat, D. N. Shankara. 1971. An Outline Grammar of Havyaka. Poona. Deccan College.
TextBooks:
McCormack, William. 1966. Kannada. Madison: Univ of Wisconsin Press.
Other Sources:
Nayak, H. M. 1967. Kannada: Literary and Colloquial. Mysore: Rao & Raghavan.
Upadhyaya, U. P. 1972. Kannada Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Chisum, Gary L. 1975. "Systematic Phonology of the Kannada Noun," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M.Eastman, 197-205.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ (t̪h) d̪ (d̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤) Aspirated stops are found in literary, but not colloquial Kannada.
č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌)
(f) v s ṣ š h
m n ṇ ŋ
l ḷ
ɾ
Stops: p (ph) b (b̤) t̪ (t̪h) d̪ (d̪) ṭ (ṭh) ḍ (ḍ̤) k (kh) ɡ (ɡ̤) Aspirated stops are found in literary, but not colloquial Kannada.
Affricates: č (čh) ɡ̌ (ɡ̤̌)
Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ š h
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e (æ)
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources:
Kothandaraman, P. 1969. "Kodagu Vowels," in Dravidian Linguistics: Seminar Papers, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and N. Kumaraswami, 233-47.
Emeneau, M. B. 1970. "Kodagu Vowels," JAOS 90, 145-58.
Garman, Michael. 1975. "Coorg Verbal Base Structure" in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 322-74.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v s h
m n ṇ ñ ŋ
l ḷ
r
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s h
Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: ã ũ
Other Sources: Upadhyaya, U. P. 1972. "Kuruba - A Dravidian Language," in Third Seminar on Dravidian Linguistics, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and S. V. Shanmugam, 307-28.
Consonant system:
p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v
m n ṇ ŋ
l ḷ
r
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Noun
Number: s p
Syntax: SOV
Number: 2044
Language: Toda
Location: S India (W Tamil Nadu)
Population: 1,000
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu
Grammar: Emeneau, Murray B. 1983. Toda Grammar and Texts. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
Other Sources:
Emeneau, M. B. 1957. "Toda, a Dravidian Language," Transactions of the Philological Society, 15-66.
Agesthialingom, S. and S. Sakthivel. 1972. "Toda Nouns," IL 33, 153-7.
AL 8:4
WPF
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
ts dz č ɡ̌
f θ s̪ z̪ s z ṣ ẓ š ž x
m n ṇ (ŋ)
l ɬ ḷ ɬ̣
ɾ r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f θ s̪ z̪ s z ṣ ẓ š ž x
Nasals: m n ṇ (ŋ)
Laterals: l ɬ ḷ ɬ̣
Vibrants: ɾ r ṛ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y e ø
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ɯ o
Long Vowels: ī ȳ ǣ ↔ō ā ū ɯ̄ ō
Other Sources:
Emeneau, M. B. 1944-46. Kota Texts, 4 vols. UCPL 2-3.
Eastman, Carol M. 1975. "Morphophonemics of the Positive and Negative Stems of the Kota Verb," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 299-321.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
ph b t̪h d̪ th d ṭh ḍ kh ɡ
č ɡ̌
v ṣ
m n ṇ ŋ
l ḷ
r ɾ̣
Stops: ph b t̪h d̪ th d ṭh ḍ kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v ṣ
Nasals: m n ṇ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p (pl not obligatory)
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 2046
Language: Irula
Location: S India (S Mysore)
Population: 4,000
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu
Grammar: Zvelebil, Kamil V. 1973. The Irula Language. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ t d k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v
m n̪ ṇ
l ḷ
r̪ r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ ṭ ḍ t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v
Nasals: m n̪ ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r̪ r ṛ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ʉ ǝ ɵ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources: Srinivasavarma, G. 1969. "Phonology of Yerukala," in Dravidian Linguistics: Seminar Papers, ed. by S. Agesthialingom and N. Kumaraswami, 187-202.
Consonant system:
p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
v s ṣ
m n ṇ
l ḷ
r
Stops: p b t d ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s ṣ
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ɨ
Nasal Vowels:
ẽ ã ũ õ
ẽ̄ ã̄ ȭ
Diphthongs: ai au
Syntax: SOV
Comments: Speakers of the Yerukala dialect are all bilingual in Telugu.
Number: 2048
Language: Tamil
Dialect: Tirunelveli
Location: S India (S Tamil Nadu)
Population: 40 million
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu
Grammar: Kamatchinathan, A. 1969. The Tirunelveli Tamil Dialect. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.
Consonant system:
p t̪ ṭ k
č
ɸ v ð š h
m n ṇ ñ ŋ
l ḷ
r ɾ̣
Stops: p t̪ ṭ k
Affricates: č
Fricatives: ɸ v ð š h
Nasals: m n ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ɛ̄ ā ū ō
Nasal Vowels: ṽ v̄̃
Other Sources: Karunatilake, W. S. and S. Suseendirarajah. 1973. "Phonology of Sinhalese and Sri Lanka Tamil," IL 34, 180-90.
Consonant system:
p t̪ t ṭ k
č
v
m n ṇ
l ḷ
r
Stops: p t̪ t ṭ k
Affricates: č
Fricatives: v
Nasals: m n ṇ
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: (ɨ) (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Syntax: SOV
Number: 2050
Language: Tamil
Location: SE India (Madras)
Population: 40 million
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu
Dictionary: Visvanatha Pillai, V. 1963. A Tamil-English Dictionary. Madras: Madras School Book and Literature Society.
Grammar:
Subramoniam, Vadasery Iyemperumal. 1958. A Descriptive Analysis of a Dialect of Tamil. Bloomington: India Univ Diss.
Ganesan, S. N. 1975. A Contrastive Grammar of Hindi and Tamil. Madras: Univ of Madras.
TextBooks:
Kumaraswami Raja, N. and K. Doraswamy. 1966. Conversational Tamil. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.
Shanmugam Pillai, M. 1965, 1968. Spoken Tamil, 2 vols. Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univ.
Other Sources: Rajaram, S. 1972. Tamil Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Consonant system:
p b t̪ d̪ t ṭ ḍ k ɡ
č ɡ̌
(f) v s ṣ ẓ š h
m n ṇ (ñ) (ŋ)
l ḷ
r ṛ
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ t ṭ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ ẓ š h
Nasals: m n ṇ (ñ) (ŋ)
Laterals: l ḷ
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels:
(ṽ)
(v̄̃)
Diphthongs: ai au
Classification: Dravidian: South: Tamil-Kannada: Tamil-Kodagu
Dictionary: Ramunni, Kalladi Thyen. 1951. Malayalam and English Vocabulary. Mangalore: Basel Mission Book Depot.
TextBooks: Peter, K. C. 1967. Malayalam for Foreigners. Ernakulam, Kerela: C.I.C.C. Book House.
Other Sources:
Subramoniam,V. I. 1962. "Phonemic Outline of a Dialect of Malayalam," IL 23, 99-116.
Syamala Kumari, B. 1972. Malayalam Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
McAlpin, David. W. 1975. "The Morphophonology of the Malayalam Noun," in Dravidian Phonological Systems, ed. by Harold F. Schiffman and Carol M. Eastman, 206-223.
Subramoniam, V. I. 1962. "Phonemic Outline of a Dialect of Malayalam," IL 23, 99-116.
Sreedhar, M. V. 1972. "Phonology of the Cochin Dialect of Malayalam," IJDL 1:2, 100-25.
AL 8:4
Consonant system:
p (ph) b t̪ (t̪h) d̪ t ṭ (ṭh) ḍ k (kh) ɡ
č (čh) ɡ̌
(f) v s ṣ š h
m n̪ n ṇ ñ ŋ
l ḷ ʎ̣
ɾ r
Stops: p (ph) b t̪ (t̪h) d̪ t ṭ (ṭh) ḍ k (kh) ɡ
Affricates: č (čh) ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s ṣ š h
Nasals: m n̪ n ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ḷ ʎ̣
Vibrants: ɾ r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai au ei
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
*3mfn *6mfn
Syntax: SOV AN GN
Prep/Post: POST
Краткий типологический обзор эламитского языка
Number: 2019
Language: Elamite
Dialect: Achaemenid
Location: SW Iran
Population: extinct (c. 1,000 A.D.)
Classification: Elamo-Dravidian
Other Sources:
McAlpin, David W. 1981. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
Blazek, Václav. 2002. "Elam: A Bridge between the Ancient Near East and Dravidian India?," Mother Tongue 7, 123-46.
Starostin, George. 2002. "On the Genetic Affiliation of the Elamite Language," Mother Tongue 7, 147-70.
Consonant system:
p t k
s z š
m n
l
r
Stops: p t k
Fricatives: s z š
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j (w)
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i (e)
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Noun
Number: s p (normally used only with humans)
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS N+A+D
Prep/Post: POST
Comments: McAlpin (1981), following earlier scholars, proposed that the extinct Elamite language was most closely related to the Dravidian family. Without denying this connection Blazek (2002) points out striking similarities with Afro-Asiatic. Starostin (2002) rejects a close connection with Dravidian and regards Elamite as in some sense intermediate between Nostratic and Afro-Asiatic. The precise position of Elamite is not yet clear.
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Картвельской семьи
Number: 1595
Language: Proto-Kartvelian
Location: Georgia
Classification: Kartvelian
Other Sources: Gamkrelidze, Thomas V. 1966. "A Typology of Common Kartvelian," Lg 42, 69-83.
Consonant system:
ph pʔ th tʔ kh kʔ qh qʔ
b d ɡ
tsh tsʔ ćh ćʔ čh čʔ
dz ɡ́ ɡ̌
s ś š x h
z ź ɣ
m n
l
r
Stops: ph pʔ b th tʔ d kh kʔ ɡ qh qʔ
Affricates: tsh tsʔ dz ćh ćʔ ɡ́ čh čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z ś ź š x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Number: 1596
Language: Georgian
Location: Georgia
Population: 3.3 million
Classification: Kartvelian
Grammar:
Tschenkéli, Kita. 1958. Einführung in die georgische Sprache, 2 vols. Zürich: Amirani.
Chikobava, A. S. 1967. "Gruzinskij jazyk," in JNS 4, 22-61.
Vogt, Hans. 1971. Grammaire de la langue géorgienne. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
TextBooks:
Tsibaxashvili, G. I. 1973. Elementarnyj kurs gruzinskogo jazyka. Tbilisi: Tbilisi Univ.
Other Sources:
Robins, R. H. 1952. "Notes on the Phonetics of the Georgian Word," BSOAS 14, 55-72.
Chikobáva. Arnol'd. 1971. Gruzinskij jazyk. Tbilisi: Ganatleba.
AL 6:8.
Consonant system:
ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qʔ
b d̪ ɡ
t̪sh t̪sʔ čh čʔ
d̪z ɡ̌
s̪ š χ h
v z̪ ž ʁ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qʔ
Affricates: t̪sh t̪sʔ d̪z čh čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: v s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:
i u
e o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Classification: Kartvelian
Grammar: Topuria, V. T. 1967. "Svanskij jazyk," in JNS 4, 77-94.
Consonant system:
ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qh qʔ
b d̪ ɡ
t̪sh t̪sʔ čh čʔ
d̪z ɡ̌
s̪ š x h
(v) z̪ ž ɣ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qh qʔ
Affricates: t̪sh t̪sʔ d̪z čh čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: (v) s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3 *6
Syntax: SOV AN
Ergative: Erg
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Number: 1598
Language: Mingrelian
Alternate Name: Zan
Location: W Georgia
Population: 300,000
Classification: Kartvelian: Zan
Grammar: Kiziria, A. I. 1967. "Zanskij jazyk," in JNS 4, 62-76.
Consonant system:
ph pʔ t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ qʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
t̪sh t̪sʔ čh čʔ
d̪z ɡ̌
(f) s̪ š x h
v z̪ ž ɣ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: ph pʔ b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ qʔ ʔ
Affricates: t̪sh t̪sʔ d̪z čh čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) v s̪ z̪ š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mfn 6mfn
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N
Ergative: Erg
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1599
Language: Laz
Location: SW Georgia
Population: 50,000
Classification: Kartvelian: Zan
Other Sources: Dumézil, Georges. 1937. Contes lazes. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.
Consonant system:
Pronouns: indef
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N
Обзоры типов языков, возможно, входящих в Евразийскую макросемью
Number: 1646
Language: Etruscan
Location: N Italy
Population: (+)c. 400 AD
Classification: ?Eurasiatic
Grammar: Bonfante, Larissa. 1990. Etruscan: Univ of California Press.
Pfiffig, Ambros Josef. 1969. Die etruskische Sprache. Graz: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt.
Pallottino, M. 1936. Elementi di lingua etrusca. Florence.
Other Sources: Fowler, Murray. 1974. "Etruscan Language," EB 6, 1018-9.
Pallottino, M. 1955. The Etruscans. Baltimore: Penguin.
Pallottino, M. 1977. "La lingua degli Etruschi," Popoli e civiltà dell'Italia antica 6.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
tsh
f s š h
v
m n
l
r
Stops: p ph t th k kh
Affricates: tsh
Fricatives: f v s š h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Vowel system:
i u
e
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Diphthongs: ai au ei eu ui
Stress: initial
Noun
Number: s p
Syntax: SVO GN N-NUM
Prep/Post: PREP/POST
Краткие типологические обзоры языков Афразийской семьи
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Ancient Egyptian
Grammar:
Sander-Hansen, C. E. 1963. Ågyptische Grammatik. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Donadoni, Sergio. 1963. Appunti di grammatica egiziana. Milan: Istituto Editoriale Cisalpino.
du Bourguet, Pierre. 1971. Grammaire égyptienne. Louvain: Peeters.
černy, Jaroslav. 1975. A Late Egyptian Grammar. Rome: Biblical Institute Press.
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
m n
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: VSO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [2]) N-POSS D+Num+N+A
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1318
Language: Coptic
Location: Egypt
Population: extinct (19th c.)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Ancient Egyptian
Dictionary:
Cerny, J. 1976. Coptic Etymological Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Grammar:
Elanskaja, A. I. 1964. Koptskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.
Kosack, Wolfgany. 1974. Lehrbuch des Koptischen. Graz: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt.
Other Sources:
Houghton, Herbert Pierrepont. 1959. The Coptic Verb. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Knudsen, Ebbe E. 1961. "Saidic Coptic Vowel Phonemes," Acta Orientalia 26, 29-42.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɟ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s š x h
β v
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: β v s š x h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō
Syllable: CV(C)(C)
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA DN NUM-N POSS-N/N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1319
Language: Proto-Berber
Location: N Africa
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber
Other Sources:
Prasse, Karl-G. 1972-74. Manuel de grammaire touaregue, 3 vols.
Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
Consonant system:
t k
b d ɡ
f s (š) χ h
z ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: b t d k ɡ
Fricatives: f s z (š) χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ d z
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4mf
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1320
Language: Guanche
Location: Canary Islands
Population: extinct (16th c.)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Guanche
Consonant system:
Number: 1321
Language: East Numidian
Alternate Name: Old Libyan
Location: Morocco
Population: extinct
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: East Numidian
Consonant system:
Number: 1322
Language: Siwa
Location: NW Egypt
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern
Consonant system:
Number: 1323
Language: Awjila
Location: NE Libya
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern
Consonant system:
Number: 1324
Language: Sokna
Location: NC Libya
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern
Consonant system:
Number: 1325
Language: Ghadames
Location: Libya
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Eastern
Consonant system:
Number: 1326
Language: Tamahaq
Dialect: Ahaggar
Location: S Algeria
Population: 200,000 (10,000)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Tuareg
Dictionary: Cortade, Jean-Marie. 1967. Lexique français-touareg. Algiers: Arts et Métiers Graphiques.
Grammar:
Prasse, Karl-G. 1972-74. Manuel de grammaire touaregue, 3 vols.
Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
Consonant system:
t̪ k q (ʔ)
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
f s̪ š χ h
z̪ ž ʁ
m n̪ ñ
l̪
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ ɟ k ɡ q (ʔ)
Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž χ ʁ h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all
cɒ t d z
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ ɐ v̄̄ (overlonɡ) all but ǝ ɐ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4mf
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1327
Language: Tamazheq
Location: Niger
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Tuareg
Consonant system:
Number: 1328
Language: Tamasheq
Location: Niger
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Tuareg
Consonant system:
Number: 1329
Language: Zenaga
Location: SW Mauritania
Population: 16,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Western
Grammar: Nicolas, F. 1953. La langue berbère de Mauritanie. Dakar: IFAN.
Consonant system:
t k q
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f θ s š h
ð z ž ɣ (ʕ)
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f θ ð s z š ž ɣ (ʕ) h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t d k θ ð s z l r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4mf
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: VSO/SVO NG ND NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1330
Language: Shilha
Location: SW Morocco
Population: 3 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Atlas
Grammar: Applegate, Joseph R. 1958. An Outline of the Structure of Shilha. New York: American Council of Learned Societies.
Other Sources: Nakano, Aki'o. 1976. Dialogues in Moroccan Shilha. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo Univ.
Consonant system:
t k q (ʔ)
b d ɡ
m n
l
r
Stops: b t d k ɡ q (ʔ)
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but cɒ and ɡlides
cɒ t d k s z l r
cʷ k ɡ q χ ʁ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u
Stress: final
Syntax: VSO NA
Comments: Men, but not women, are bilingual in Arabic.
Number: 1331
Language: Tamazight
Dialect: Ayt Ayache
Location: C Morocco
Population: 2 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Atlas
Dictionary: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971a. A Computerized Lexicon of Tamazight. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, Univ of Michigan.
Grammar: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971b. A Reference Grammar of Tamazight. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, Univ of Michigan.
TextBooks: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971c. A Course in Spoken Tamazight. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, Univ of Michigan.
Other Sources: Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1968. Tamazight Verb Structure. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
t̪h k̄ q qʷ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ̄
m n
l̪
ɾ
Stops: b t̪h d̪ k̄ ɡ̄ q qʷ ʔ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
c̄ most
cɒ t d s z l ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Noun Classes: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: VSO/(SVO) NA NG ND NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1332
Language: Tamazight
Dialect: Ait Ndhir
Location: C Morocco
Population: 2 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Atlas
Grammar:
Willms, Alfred. 1972. Grammatik der südlichen Beraberdialekte. Glückstadt: J. J. Augustin.
Penchoen, Thomas G. 1973. Tamazight of the Ayt Ndhir. Los Angeles: Undena.
Other Sources: Harries, Jeanette. 1970. "A Berber Tanšhat: In a Tamazight Dialect," BSOAS 33, 308-21.
Consonant system:
t̪ k kʷ q
b d̪ ɡ ɡ̄ʷ
č̄
ɡ̌̄
m n̪
l
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ k kʷ ɡ ɡ̄ʷ q
Affricates: č̄ ɡ̌̄
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but θ x xʷ β ð ɣ ɣʷ ʁ j w (č ɡ̌ ɡʷ are always lonɡ)
cɒ t ð (s) z r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i æ
Central Vowels: (ǝ)
Back Vowels: u
Stress: final
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: VSO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1333
Language: Kabyle
Location: N Algeria
Population: 1 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Kabyle
Dictionary: Newmen, Francis William. 1887. Kabail Vocabulary. London: Trübner.
Grammar:
Hanoteau, Adolphe. 1906. Essai de grammaire kabyle. Algiers. [Reprinted 1976 by Philo Press, Amsterdam.]
Hanouz, S. 1968. Grammaire berbère. Paris: Klincksieck.
TextBooks:
Saı̈d, Boulifa S. A.1910. Une première année de langue kabyle. Algiers: Adolphe Tourdan.
Vincennes, Louis de and J.-M. Dallet. 1960. Initiation à la langue berbère (Kabylie). Fort-Nationale, Algeria: Fichier de documentation berbère.
Consonant system:
t k kʷ q
b d ɡ ɡʷ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
m n
l
r
Stops: b t d k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ q
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t d s z r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def indef
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati
Dictionary: Ibañez, Esteban. 1959. Diccionario español-senhayi. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Africanos.
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q
b d̪ ɡ
ɡ̌
m n ñ
l ʎ
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q
Affricates: ɡ̌
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ʎ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t d s z
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati
Consonant system:
Number: 1347
Language: Sened
Location: S Tunisia
Population: extinct
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati
Consonant system:
Number: 1348
Language: Jerba
Location: S Tunisia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati
Consonant system:
Number: 1349
Language: Tamezret
Location: Tunisia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati
Consonant system:
Number: 1350
Language: Taujjut
Location: Tunisia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati
Consonant system:
Number: 1351
Language: Zwara
Location: Libya
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati
Consonant system:
Number: 1352
Language: Nefusi
Location: Libya
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Berber: Northern: Zenati: East Zenati
Consonant system:
Number: 1353
Language: Proto-Chadic
Location: N Africa
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic
Other Sources: Newman, Paul. 1977. Chadic Classification and Reconstructions, Afroasiatic Linguistics 5:1.
Consonant system:
p t c k
b ɓ d ɗ ɟ ʄ ɡ
f s š x
z
m n
ɬ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ c ɟ ʄ k ɡ
Fricatives: f s z š x
Nasals: m n
Laterals: ɬ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
cj k ɡ x
cʷ k ɡ x
?Nc mb ...
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ a only
Tones: hi lo (perhaps a pitch accent)
Number: 1354
Language: Masa
Location: SW Chad (W TandjilВ)
Population: 55,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Syntax: SVO NG
Number: 1355
Language: Zime
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa
Consonant system:
Number: 1356
Language: Mesme
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa
Consonant system:
Number: 1357
Language: Marba
Location: SW Chad (W TandjilВ)
Population: 5,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa
Consonant system:
Number: 1358
Language: Musey
Location: N Cameroon
Population: 48,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Masa
Grammar: Platiel, Suzanne. 1968. Esquisse d'une étude du musey. BSELAF 6.
Consonant system:
p t k
b mb d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s ç h
v z
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b mb t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z ç h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Tones:
hi mid lo
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1359
Language: Somrai
Location: SW Chad (N TandjilВ)
Population: 50,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai
Consonant system:
Number: 1360
Language: Tumak
Location: SW Chad (E TandjilВ)
Population: 11,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai
Dictionary: Caprile, Jean-Pierre. 1975. Lexique tumak-français. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b ɓ d̪ ɗ̪ ɡ ŋɡ
ɡ̌
s h
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l̪
r ṛ
Stops: p b ɓ t̪ d̪ ɗ̪ k ɡ ŋɡ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Fricatives: s h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ṛ
Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɡ ɡ̌
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e (ɛ)
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: ũ õ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Tones: hi mid lo ris fall
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Pronouns:
1 4de 4i
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO GN N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1361
Language: Ndam
Location: SW Chad (SE TandjilВ)
Population: 670
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai
Consonant system:
Number: 1362
Language: Sarwa
Location: SW Chad (S Chari-Baguirimi)
Population: 400
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai
Consonant system:
Number: 1363
Language: Gadang
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai
Consonant system:
Number: 1364
Language: Mod
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai
Consonant system:
Number: 1365
Language: Miltu
Location: SC Chad (NW Moyen-Chari)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Somrai
Consonant system:
Number: 1366
Language: Nancere
Location: SW Chad (S TandjilВ)
Population: 35,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere
Other Sources: Hoffman, Carl. 1971. "On the Classification of Nancere," JWAL 8, 5-12.
Consonant system:
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2mf 5
3mf 6
Number: 1367
Language: Lele
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1368
Language: Gabri
Location: N Central African Republic
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere
Consonant system:
Number: 1369
Language: Kabalai
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Nancere
Consonant system:
Number: 1370
Language: Kera
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Kera
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1371
Language: Kwang
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group A: Kera
Consonant system:
Number: 1372
Language: Mokulu
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B
Consonant system:
Number: 1373
Language: Dangla
Alternate Name: Dangaleat
Location: SC Chad (N Guera)
Population: 18,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Dictionary: Fédry, Jacques. 1971. Dictionnaire dangaléat. Lyon: Afrique et Langage.
Other Sources:
Fédry, Jacques. 1969. "Syntagmes de détermination en dangaléat," JWAL 6, 5-19.
Fédry, Jacques. 1971a. "Masculin, féminin et collectif en dangaléat (groupe 'sokoro-mubi' - Tchad," JAL 10, 34-46.
Fédry, Jacques. 1971b. Phonologie du dangaléat. Lyon: Afrique et Language.
Consonant system:
p t̪ c k
b ɓ d̪ ɗ̪ ɟ ʄ ɡ
s
z
m n̪ ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b ɓ t̪ d̪ ɗ̪ c ɟ ʄ k ɡ
Fricatives: s z
Nasals: m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all
Nc
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Tones: hi lo ris fall
Stress: root initial
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1374
Language: Migama
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1375
Language: Mahwa
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1376
Language: Jegu
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1377
Language: Mogum
Location: SC Chad (C Guera)
Population: 6,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1378
Language: Bidiyo
Alternate Name: Bidiya
Location: Chad
Population: 14,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1379
Language: Mubi
Location: SW Chad (NE Guera)
Population: 36,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1380
Language: Masmaje
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1381
Language: Kajakse
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1382
Language: Kujarge
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1383
Language: Toram
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Dangla
Consonant system:
Number: 1384
Language: Sokoro
Location: SW Chad (C Guera)
Population: 8,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Sokoro
Consonant system:
Number: 1385
Language: Barain
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Sokoro
Consonant system:
Number: 1386
Language: Saba
Location: Chad
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: East: Group B: Sokoro
Consonant system:
Number: 1387
Language: Tera
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 50,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera
Grammar: Newman, Paul. 1970. A Grammar of Tera. UCPL 57.
Other Sources: Newman, Paul. 1964. "A Word List of Tera," JWAL 1:2, 33-50.
Consonant system:
p t k kʷ
b mb ɓ d nd ɗ ʄ ɡ ɡʷ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ ɠ
č
ɡ̌ ñɡ̌
f s š x xʷ
v z ž ɣ ɣʷ
m n ñ ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b mb ɓ t d nd ɗ ʄ k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ ɠ
Affricates: č ɡ̌ ñɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x xʷ ɣ ɣʷ
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cj p ɓ v
Glides: j (w)
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Tones: hi mid lo
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1388
Language: Jara
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 40,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera
Consonant system:
Number: 1389
Language: Ga'anda
Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 10,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera
Other Sources: Newman, Roxana Ma. 1971. "Downstep in Ga'anda," JAL 10, 15-27.
Consonant system:
p t k kʷ
mb ɓ nd ɗ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ
č
ñɡ̌
f s š x xʷ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
r
Stops: p mb ɓ t nd ɗ k kʷ ŋɡ ŋɡʷ
Affricates: č ñɡ̌
Fricatives: f s š x xʷ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cʷ k ŋɡ x
Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Tones: hi mid lo (ris) (fall) downstep downdrift
Noun
Number: s p
Articles: def
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1390
Language: Hona
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Tera
Consonant system:
Number: 1391
Language: Bura
Dialect: Pabir
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 100,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Other Sources: STAL
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j ʔj w ʔw
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Tones: hi lo
Number: 1392
Language: Chibak
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 20,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Consonant system:
Number: 1393
Language: Putai
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Consonant system:
Number: 1394
Language: Margi
Dialect: Lassa
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 151,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Other Sources:
STAL
WALS
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x
v z ž ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j ʔj w ʔw
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Tones: hi lo
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1395
Language: Margi
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 151,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Grammar: Hoffman, Carl. 1963. A Grammar of the Margi Language. London: Oxford Univ Press.
Consonant system:
p pt t c k ʔ
b ɓ bd bɗ d ɗ ɟ ɡ
pts ts pč č
bdz dz bɡ̌ ɡ̌
f fs s fç š ç x
v vz z vj ̂ ž j ̂ ɣ
m n mñ ñ ŋ
l ɬ bɮ
ɮ
(v̊) r
Stops: p b ɓ pt bd bɗ t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: pts bdz ts dz pč bɡ̌ č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v fs vz s z š ž ç j ̂ fç vj ̂ x ɣ
Nasals: m n mñ ñ ŋ
Laterals: bɮ l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: (v̊) r
Modified Consonants:
Nc p b t d c ɟ k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ ts dz č ɡ̌ š ɬ
cʷ p b ɓ mb t nt k ɡ ŋk ŋɡ nts f v s x ɣ m ŋ ɬ
Glides: j ʔj w ʔw
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Tones: hi lo ris (fall)
Number: 1396
Language: Kilba
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 80,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Other Sources: STAL
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j ʔj w ʔw
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Tones:
hi lo
Number: 1397
Language: Higi
Dialect: Nkafa
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 203,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Other Sources:
Mohrlang, Roger. 1971. "Vectors, Prosodies, and Higi Vowels," JAL 10, 75-86.
Mohrlang, Roger. 1972. Higi Phonology. Studies in Nigerian Languages, No. 2. Zaria: Institute of Linguistics.
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x
v z ž ɣ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
v̊ r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: v̊ r
Modified Consonants:
Nc p b t d k ɡ ts dz č ɡ̌
cj all but r
cʷ all but l
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)V
Tones: hi lo ris
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1398
Language: Higi
Dialect: Baza
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 203,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Other Sources: STAL
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š x h
v z ž ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž x ɣ h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w ʔw
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Tones:
hi lo
Number: 1399
Language: Bana
Location: Cameroon
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Bura-Higi
Consonant system:
Number: 1400
Language: Sukur
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 10,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam
Consonant system:
Number: 1401
Language: Lamang
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: VSO
Number: 1402
Language: Mandara
Alternate Name: Malgwa
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 190,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1403
Language: Paduko
Alternate Name: Podokwo
Location: N Cameroon
Population: 10,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: VSO
Number: 1404
Language: Glavda
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 19,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara
Dictionary:
Rapp, Eugen Ludwig, Brigitta Benzing and Christraud Mühle. 1968, 1969.
Dictionary of the Glavda Language, 2 vols. Frankfurt on Main: Frankfurt on Main Bible Society.
Consonant system:
p t k
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ŋɡ
tl č
dl ɡ̌
f s š ç x
v z ž ɣ
n ñ ŋ ŋʷ ŋj
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ŋɡ
Affricates: tl dl č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž ç x ɣ
Nasals: n ñ ŋ ŋʷ ŋj
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Tones: hi lo ris fall
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO ND N-POSS
Number: 1405
Language: Guduf
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara
Consonant system:
Number: 1406
Language: Dghwede
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara
Consonant system:
Number: 1407
Language: Gvoko
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Mandara
Consonant system:
Number: 1408
Language: Mafa
Location: Cameroon
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam
Other Sources: Haller, Beat. 1980. Phonology of Zulgo. Yaoundé, Cameroon: Institut des Sciences Humaines.
Consonant system:
p t k kʷ ʔ
b mb ɓ d nd ɗ ɡ ŋɡ ɡʷ
ts
dz ndz
f s h
v z
m n ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b mb ɓ t d nd ɗ k kʷ ɡ ŋɡ ɡʷ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz ndz
Fricatives: f v s z h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i y ɛ œ
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Long Vowels: (v̄)
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Tones: hi mid lo downstep
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1410
Language: Gisiga
Location: N Cameroon
Population: 44,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam
Consonant system:
Number: 1411
Language: Mada
Location: Cameroon
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1412
Language: Hurza
Location: Cameroon
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam
Consonant system:
Number: 1413
Language: Muktele
Location: Cameroon
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bura-Mandara: Mandara-Matakam: Matakam
Consonant system:
Number: 1414
Language: Daba
Dialect: Musgoy
Location: N Cameroon
Population: 31,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Daba
Other Sources: Wedekind, Klaus. 1976. "Kolá, tpalá, ou ʔkpalá ?: Notes sur les occlusives doubles dans la langue daba-mousgoy (Kola) du Nord-Cameroun," AFL 2, 91-104.
Consonant system:
p pt t̪ kt k kʷ (ʔkp)
b ɓ bd d̪ ɗ̪ ɡd ɡ ɡʷ
t̪s
d̪z
f s̪ h
v z̪
m n̪
l̪ ɬ̪
ɮ̪
r
Stops: p b ɓ pt bd t̪ d̪ ɗ̪ kt ɡd k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ (ʔkp)
Affricates: t̪s d̪z
Fricatives: f v s̪ z̪ h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪ ɬ̪ ɮ̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɡ dz
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i (y) e (ø)
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Syntax: SVO NG ND N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1415
Language: Gawar
Location: Cameroon
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Daba
Consonant system:
Number: 1416
Language: Hina
Location: N Cameroon
Population: 4,300
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Daba
Consonant system:
Number: 1417
Language: Gudu
Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata
Consonant system:
Number: 1418
Language: Bata
Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 39,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata
Consonant system:
Number: 1419
Language: Bata
Dialect: Bachama
Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 39,000 (20,000)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata
Other Sources: STAL
Consonant system:
p t k kp ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɡb
č
ɡ̌
f s h
v z
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ kp ɡb ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Tones: hi lo
Number: 1420
Language: Gude
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 10,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata
Other Sources:
Hoskison, James. 1974. "Prosodies and Verb Stems in Gude," Linguistics 141, 17-26.
WALS
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
ts
dz
f s x
v z ɣ
m n ŋ
l ɬ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: f v s z x ɣ
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: Nc p b t d k ɡ s z x ɬ
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄
Syllable: CV
Tones: hi lo
Syntax: VSO
Number: 1421
Language: Nzangi
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group A: Bata
Consonant system:
Number: 1422
Language: Musgu
Dialect: Vulum
Location: SW Chad (N Mayo-Kebbi)
Population: 50,000 (8,500)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B
Grammar: Tourneux, Henry. 1978. Le mulwi ou vulum de mogroum (Tchad). Paris: SELAF.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k
b ɓ d̪ ɗ ɡ
f s h
v z
m n̪ (ñ) ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
ɾ
Stops: p b ɓ t̪ d̪ ɗ k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s z h
Nasals: m n̪ (ñ) ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i (y) e (ø)
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī (ē) ā ū (ō)
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C) Nˈ
Tones: hi lo ris fall
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f (sing only)
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3mf 6hN
N=non-hum
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1423
Language: Gidar
Location: N Cameroon
Population: 50,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B
Consonant system:
Number: 1424
Language: Buduma
Location: W Chad (Lac)
Population: 25,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B
Other Sources:
Benton, P. A. 1912. Notes on Some Languages of the Western Sudan. London: Oxford Univ Press. [Reprinted 1968 by Frank Cass & Co, London, as The Languages and Peoples of Bornu, vol 1.]
WALS
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f h
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
Nc b ɡ ɡ̌
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1425
Language: Kotoko
Location: N Cameroon
Population: 40,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B
Consonant system:
Noun
Number: s p
Syntax: NG
Number: 1426
Language: Logone
Alternate Name: Lagwan
Location: Cameroon
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Biu-Mandara: Group B
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1427
Language: Hausa
Location: N Nigeria (Kano)
Population: 20 million (12 million speak it as a first language)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Hausa
Dictionary:
Abraham, R. C. 1962. Dictionary of the Hausa Language. London: Univ of London Press.
Skinner, Neil. 1970. English-Hausa Dictionary. Zatia: Northern Nigerian Publishing Company.
Grammar:
Abraham, R. C. 1959. The Language of the Hausa People. London: Univ of London Press.
Taylor, F. W. 1959. A Practical Hausa Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
TextBooks:
Hodge, Carleton T. and Ibrahim Umaru. 1963. Hausa Basic Course. Washington, D.C.: Foreign Service Institute.
Kraft, Charles H. and Marguerite E. Kraft. 1973. Introductory Hausa. Berkeley: Univ of California Press.
Kraft, Charles H. and Anthony Kirk-Greene. 1973. Teach Yourself Hausa. London: English Universities Press.
Cowan, J. Ronayne and Russell G. Schuh. 1975. Spoken Hausa. Ithaca, N.Y.: Spoken Language Services.
Other Sources:
Kraft, Charles H. 1963. A Study of Hausa Syntax, 3 vols. HSL 8-10.
Hoffman, Carl. 1969. "Hausa," in TNL, 73-84.
Consonant system:
t k kʷ kj kʔ kʔʷ kʔj ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɡʷ ɡj
č
ɡ̌
ɸ s sʔ š h
z
m n
l
ɾ ɾ̣
Stops: b ɓ t d ɗ k kʷ kj kʔ kʔʷ kʔj ɡ ɡʷ ɡj ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: ɸ s sʔ z š h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au
Syllable: (C)V(C) Nˈ
Tones: hi lo fall downdrift
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6 + indef
Syntax: SVO AN/NA NG DN/ND N-NUM N-POSS D+A+N+Num
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1428
Language: Gwandara
Location: C Nigeria (Benue-Plateau)
Population: 30,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Hausa
Other Sources: Matsushita, Shuji. 1974. A Comparative Vocabulary of Gwandara Dialects. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.
Consonant system:
p t k kp
b d ɡ ɡb
č
ɡ̌
s š h
z
m n
l
ɾ
Stops: p b t d k ɡ kp ɡb
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z š h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
cj p k ɡ
cʷ b k ɡ č h
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Tones: hi mid lo (+ 6 contour tones)
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: N-POSS
Number: 1429
Language: Karekare
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1430
Language: Bole
Location: NE Nigeria (Bornu)
Population: 32,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
TextBooks: Lukas, J. 1971. "Über das erweiterte Verb im Bolanci (Nordnigerien)," JAL 10, 1-14.
Other Sources: Benton, P. A. 1912. Notes on Some Languages of the Western Sudan. London: Oxford Univ Press. [Reprinted 1968 by Frank Cass & Co, London, as The Languages and Peoples of Bornu, vol 1.]
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ
č
ɡ̌
f s š h
z
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ɠ ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɡ ɡ̌ z
Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Tones: hi fall
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1431
Language: Bele
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1432
Language: Ngamo
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 18,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1433
Language: Maha
Location: N Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Other Sources: Newman, Paul. 1965. "A Brief Note on the Maha Language," JWAL 2:1, 57-8.
Consonant system:
p t k
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s š h
m n ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s š h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
m̄
Nc
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Number: 1434
Language: Kirfi
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1435
Language: Deno
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1436
Language: Kubi
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1437
Language: Galambu
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1438
Language: Gera
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Bole
Consonant system:
Number: 1439
Language: Kanakuru
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 20,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale
Other Sources:
STAL
WALS
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
ɡ̌
f s š
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s š
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Tones:
hi
lo
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1440
Language: Tangale
Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 100,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale
Other Sources:
Jungraithmayr H. 1971. "The Tangale Vowel Harmony System Roconsidered," JAL 10, 28-33.
WALS
Consonant system:
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i I e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u ʋ o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all ?
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Noun
Number: s p
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NG N-POSS
Number: 1441
Language: Pero
Location: E Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 20,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1442
Language: Kupto
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Tangale
Consonant system:
Number: 1443
Language: Gerka
Location: EC Nigeria (NE Benue-Plateau)
Population: 8,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Consonant system:
Number: 1444
Language: Angas
Location: C Nigeria (Benue-Plateau)
Population: 100,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Other Sources:
Burquest, D. A. 1971. A Preliminary Study of Angas Phonology. Studies in Nigerian Languages, No. 1. Zaria: Institute of Linguistics.
STAL
Consonant system:
p t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š h
v z ž ɣ
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž ɣ h
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
Nc p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ č ɡ̌ s š ž l w
cj p b k ɡ
cʷ p b ɓ k ɡ č ɡ̌ f v s š ž m
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i I e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ɨ̄ ā
Diphthongs: ǝI
Syllable: (C)V(C)(C)
Tones: hi mid lo
Noun
Number: s p
Syntax: SVO NA N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1445
Language: Sura
Alternate Name: Mupun
Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau)
Population: 40,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Other Sources:
STAL
WALS
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
ɓ ɗ
č čh
f s š h
v z ž ɣ
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph ɓ t th ɗ k kh
Affricates: č čh
Fricatives: f v s z š ž ɣ h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Tones: hi lo fall
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1446
Language: Kofyar
Dialect: Kwolla
Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau)
Population: 70,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Dictionary: Netting, Robert. 1967. A Word List of Kofyar. Research Notes from the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages 1.2. Ibadan: Univ of Ibadan.
Consonant system:
p t k
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š
v z ž
m n ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž
Nasals: m n ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Tones: hi mid lo
Syntax: NG N-POSS
Number: 1447
Language: Chip
Location: C Nigeria (NE Benue-Plateau)
Population: 6,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Consonant system:
Number: 1448
Language: Goemai
Alternate Name: Ankwe
Location: C Nigeria (Benue-Plateau)
Population: 80,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Other Sources:
STAL
WALS
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
f s š h
v z ž
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p ph b ɓ t th d ɗ k kh ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Tones: hi lo
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1449
Language: Montol
Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau)
Population: 20,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Consonant system:
Number: 1450
Language: Tal
Location: EC Nigeria (N Benue-Plateau)
Population: 10,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Consonant system:
Number: 1451
Language: Pyapun
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Consonant system:
Number: 1452
Language: Koenoem
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Bole-Angas: Angas
Consonant system:
Number: 1453
Language: Fyer
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron
Consonant system:
Number: 1454
Language: Ron
Location: C Nigeria (Plateau)
Population: 20,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SVO
Number: 1455
Language: Sha
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron
Consonant system:
Number: 1456
Language: Kulere
Location: Nigeria (Benue-Plateau)
Population: 8,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron
Consonant system:
Pronouns:
1 4d 4ie
2mf 5
3mf 6
Number: 1457
Language: Karfa
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron
Consonant system:
Number: 1458
Language: Shagawu
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group A: Ron
Consonant system:
Number: 1459
Language: Duwai
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Bade
Consonant system:
Number: 1460
Language: Bade
Location: NE Nigeria (NW North-Eastern)
Population: 100,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Bade
Consonant system:
Syntax: NG
Number: 1461
Language: Ngizim
Location: N Nigeria (NW North-Eastern)
Population: 25,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Bade
Dictionary: Schuh, Russell G. 1981. A Dictionary of Ngizim. UCPL 99.
Other Sources: Schuh, Russell G. 1971. "Verb Forms and Verb Aspects in Ngizim," JAL 10, 47-60.
Consonant system:
p t c k
b ɓ d ɗ ɟ ɡ
f s š h
v z ž
m n ñ
l ɬ
ɮ
ɾ r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ
Fricatives: f v s z š ž h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: ɾ r
Modified Consonants:
cʷ k ɡ ŋɡ
Nc b d ɡ
Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: (ɨ) a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: ai au
Tones: hi lo (ris) fall downstep downdrift
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA/AN
Number: 1462
Language: Warji
Alternate Name: Warjawa
Location: NC Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 40,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1463
Language: Pa'a
Alternate Name: Owon Afa
Location: Nigeria (Western)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Other Sources: Awobuluyi, Oladele. 1972. "The Morphophonemics of Owon Afa," Research Notes from the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages 5.2-3, 25-44.
Consonant system:
p t k kp
b d ɡ ɡb
č
ɡ̌
f s š h hʷ
m n ŋ ŋm
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ kp ɡb
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s š h hʷ
Nasals: m n ŋ ŋm
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cʷ h
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ɛ̃ ã ũ ɔ̃
Syllable: Nˈ
Tones: hi mid lo
Syntax: SVO AN NG
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1464
Language: Siri
Alternate Name: Sirawa
Location: NC Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 2,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1465
Language: Diri
Alternate Name: Diryawa
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 3,300
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1466
Language: Jimbin
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1467
Language: Miya
Alternate Name: Miyawa
Location: NE Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 5,200
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1468
Language: Mburku
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1469
Language: Kariya
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1470
Language: Tsagu
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Warji
Consonant system:
Number: 1471
Language: Zaar
Alternate Name: Seyawa
Location: EC Nigeria (North-Eastern)
Population: 50,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
p t c k
b ɓ d ɗ ɟ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š
v z ž
m n ñ ŋ
l ɬ
ɮ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f v s z š ž
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: Nc b d ɟ ɡ dz ɡ̌
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: Nˈ
Tones: hi mid lo ris fall
Syntax: SVO NA NG
Number: 1472
Language: Barawa
Location: EC Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1473
Language: Zeem
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1474
Language: Polchi
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1475
Language: Geji
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1476
Language: Guruntum
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1477
Language: Ju
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1478
Language: Boghom
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1479
Language: Mangas
Location: Nigeria
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: West: Group B: Zaar
Consonant system:
Number: 1480
Language: Hamar
Alternate Name: Hamer
Location: SW Ethiopia (S Gemu Gofa)
Population: 22,500
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: South
Grammar: Lydall, Jean. 1976. "Hamer," in NSLE, 393-438.
Consonant system:
p t k qʔ ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ
ts č
ɡ̌
s š h
z
m n ñ ŋ
l
ɾ
Stops: p b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ɠ qʔ ʔ
Affricates: ts č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z š h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄ s m n l r ...
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Modified Vowels:
vowel harmony
Ḭ ɛ̰ æ̰ ʋ̰ ɔ̰ (v̰ = constricted pharynx and retracted tonɡue root; v = open pharynx and advanced tonɡue root)
Diphthongs: aj aw je jo ej oj we ow
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3
Syntax: SOV NA GN ND N-POSS
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1481
Language: Ari
Location: SW Ethiopia (W Gemu Gofa)
Population: 32,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: South
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1482
Language: Dime
Location: SW Ethiopia (NW Gemu Gofa)
Population: 2,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: South
Other Sources: WALS
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1483
Language: Dizi
Alternate Name: Maji
Location: SW Ethiopia (SW Kefa)
Population: 18,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Dizoid
Grammar: Allan, Edward J. 1976. "Dizi," in NSLE, 377-92.
Consonant system:
t tʔ k kʔ
b d ɡ
tsʔ č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s š h
β z ž
m n
l
r
Stops: b t tʔ d k kʔ ɡ
Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: β f s z š ž h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: South
Grammar:
Cerulli, Enrico. 1951. La lingua caffina. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.
Fleming, Harold C. 1976. "Kefa (Gonga) Languages," in NSLE, 351-76.
Consonant system:
p (pʔ) t tʔ k k ʔ
b d ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f š h
m n
l
r
Stops: p (pʔ) b t tʔ d k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f š h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ h
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Tones: hi lo
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1491
Language: Mocha
Alternate Name: Shekkacho
Location: SW Ethiopia (SC Ilubabor)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: South
Dictionary: Leslau, Wolf. 1959. A Dictionary of Moča (Southwestern Ethiopia). UCPL 18.
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
s̪ š h
m n̪
l̪
Stops: p pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: s̪ š h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but ʔ h
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Tones: hi lo fall
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1492
Language: Bosha
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: South
Consonant system:
Number: 1493
Language: Anfillo
Alternate Name: Southern Mao
Location: W Ethiopia (N Ilubabor)
Population: 2,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: Central
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1494
Language: Naga
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North
Consonant system:
Number: 1495
Language: Guba
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North
Consonant system:
Number: 1496
Language: Boro
Alternate Name: Shinasha
Location: W Ethiopia (W Gojam)
Population: 4,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1497
Language: Amuru
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gonga: North
Consonant system:
Number: 1498
Language: Janjero
Alternate Name: Yemsa
Location: SW Ethiopia (S Gemu Gofa)
Population: 1,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Janjero
Grammar: Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l' Oriente.
Consonant system:
p pʔ t tʔ k qʔ ʔ
b d ḍʔ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
ɸ f s š χ h
z ʁ
m mʔ n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p pʔ b t tʔ d ḍʔ k ɡ qʔ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: ɸ f s z š χ ʁ h
Nasals: m mʔ n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all ?
Glides: j jʔ w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources: Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue Sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.
Consonant system:
t tʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d dʔ ɡ
tsʔ č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s š h
z ž
m n nʔ
l
r
Stops: b t tʔ d dʔ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š ž h
Nasals: m n nʔ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all ?
Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1503
Language: Basketo
Location: SW Ethiopia (C Gemu Gofa)
Population: 9,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: West
Other Sources:
Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue Sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.
E
Consonant system:
p t tʔ k kʔ
b bʔ d dʔ ɡ
tsʔ č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s š h
z
m mʔ n nʔ
l
r
Stops: p b bʔ t tʔ d dʔ k kʔ ɡ
Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š h
Nasals: m mʔ n nʔ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SOV
Comments: SOV GN POSS-N
Number: 1504
Language: Male
Location: Ethiopia
Population: 12,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: South
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1505
Language: Oyda
Location: Ethiopia
Population: 3,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: Central
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: Central
Grammar: GD: Moreno, Martino Mario 1938. Introduzione alla lingua ometo. Rome: A. Mondadori.
Other Sources:
Ohman, Walter A., et al. 1976. "Three Other Ethiopian Languages," in LE.
LA
Consonant system:
p pʔ t tʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d ɗ̣ ɡ
tsʔ č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s sʔ š h
m n
l
r
Stops: p pʔ b t tʔ d ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s sʔ š h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: diphthongs
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: Central
Grammar: Allan, Edward J. 1976. "Kullo," in NSLE, 324-50.
Consonant system:
t tʔ k kʔ ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ
ts tsʔ č
ɡ̌
f s š h
z
m n
l
r
Stops: b ɓ t tʔ d ɗ k kʔ ɡ ɠ ʔ
Affricates: ts tsʔ č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: (v̄)
Diphthongs: ai oi aw
Syllable: (C)(G)V(C) (no CGVC)
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
politeness: 2 respectful
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+Num+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1508
Language: Zayse
Location: SW Ethiopia (SE Gemu Gofa)
Population: 21,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East
Other Sources: Cerulli, Enrico. 1938. Il linguaggio dei Giangerò ed alcune lingue Sidama dell'Omo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.
Consonant system:
p t k kʔ ʔ
b d dʔ ɡ
tsʔ č čʔ
ɸ f s š h
z ž
m n nʔ
l
r
Stops: p b t d dʔ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ
Fricatives: ɸ f s z š ž h
Nasals: m n nʔ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ē ā ō
Noun
Number: s p
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
Syntax: SOV AN DN POSS-N
Number: 1509
Language: Zergulla
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East
Consonant system:
Number: 1510
Language: Ganjule
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East
Consonant system:
Number: 1511
Language: Gidiccho
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East
Consonant system:
Number: 1512
Language: Gatsame
Alternate Name: Kachama
Location: Ethiopia
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1513
Language: Koyra
Alternate Name: Koorete
Location: SW Ethiopia (W Sidamo)
Population: 5,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Omotic: North: Gimojan: Ometo: East
Other Sources: E
Consonant system:
Syntax: SOV
Number: 1514
Language: Beja
Alternate Name: Bedauye, Bedawi
Location: NE Sudan (N Kassala)
Population: 100,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Beja
Dictionary:
Reinisch, Leo. 1985. Wörterbuch der Bedauye-Sprache. Vienna.
Grammar:
GD: Roper, E. M. 1928. Tu Bedawiɛ. Hertford, England: Stephen Austin & Sons.
Hudson, Richard A. 1976. "Beja," in NSLE, 97-132.
Other Sources: LA
Consonant system:
t̪ ṭʔ k kʷ ʔ
b d̪ ḍ ɡ ɡʷ
ɡ̌
f s̪ šʔ (x) h
(z̪) (ɣ)
m n̪
l
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ ṭʔ ḍ k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ ʔ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ (z̪) šʔ (x) (ɣ) h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources:
Hetzron, Robert. 1978. "The Nominal System of Awngi (Southern Agaw)," BSOAS 41, 121-41.
LA
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
f s š χ
z ʁ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š χ ʁ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cʷ k ɡ χ ʁ ŋ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e (æ)
Central Vowels: (ɨ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Tones: hi mid lo fall
Stress: normally penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3 6
politeness: 2 & 3
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1516
Language: Xamir
Alternate Name: Khamir
Location: N Ethiopia (W Elo)
Population: 5,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central
Consonant system:
Number: 1517
Language: Kemant
Alternate Name: Falasha, Qimant
Location: W Ethiopia (S Begemdir and Simen)
Population: 17,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central
Grammar:
GD: Conti Rossini, Carlo. 1912. La langue des kemant en abyssinie. Vienna: Alfred Hölder.
Appleyard, D. L. 1975. "A Descriptive Outline of Kemant," BSOAS 38, 316-50.
Consonant system:
t (tʔ) k kʷ (kʔ)
b d ɡ ɡʷ
(č) (čʔ)
ɡ̌
f s š x xʷ
z ɣ ɣʷ
m n ŋ ŋʷ
l
ɾ
Stops: b t (tʔ) d k kʷ (kʔ) ɡ ɡʷ
Affricates: (č) (čʔ) ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š x xʷ ɣ ɣʷ
Nasals: m n ŋ ŋʷ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a
Back Vowels: u o
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1518
Language: Bilin
Alternate Name: Bilen
Location: NW Ethiopia (W Eritrea)
Population: 32,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Central
Other Sources:
Palmer, F. R. 1957. "The Verb in Bilin," BSOAS 19, 131-59.
Palmer, F. R. 1958. "The Noun in Bilin", BSOAS 21, 376-91.
LA
Consonant system:
t tʔ k kʷ kʔ kʔʷ q qʷ ʔ
b d ɡ ɡʷ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
m n ŋ ŋʷ
l
r
Stops: b t tʔ d k kʷ kʔ kʔʷ ɡ ɡʷ q qʷ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Nasals: m n ŋ ŋʷ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: Some, but not all, words have a prominent syllable [= hi pitch + stress]
Other Sources: Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.
Consonant system:
p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ
b (ɓ) d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
m n̪ (ñ)
l̪
r
Stops: p pʔ b (ɓ) t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ š h
Nasals: m n̪ (ñ)
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Noun
Number: s (p) (only a few plurals exist)
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SOV AN GN DN POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1521
Language: Sidamo
Location: SW Ethiopia (N Sidamo)
Population: 850,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Highland
Grammar:
GD: Moreno, Martino Mario. 1940. Manuale di Sidamo. Rome: A Mondadori.
Cerulli, Enrico. 1936. La lingua e la storia dei Sidamo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.
Other Sources:
Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.
LA.
Consonant system:
pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
m n̪
l̪
r ɾ̣
Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ š h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources:
Cerulli, Enrico. 1936. La lingua e la storia dei Sidamo. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.
Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.
Consonant system:
pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
m n̪
l̪
r ɾ̣
Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ š h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r ɾ̣
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources:
Bender, Marvin L. 1976. "Two Cushitic Languages," in LE.
Hudson, Grover. 1976. "Highland East Cushitic," in NSLE, 232-77.
Consonant system:
pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ š h
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ š h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources: Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. "The Mogogodo, a Forgotten Cushitic People," JAL 2, 29-43.
Consonant system:
p t k
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
s š h
z
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: s z š h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
Nc ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Consonant system:
p t tʔ k kʔ q ʔ
ɓ ɗ
č čʔ
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: p ɓ t tʔ ɗ k kʔ q ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Other Sources:
Hayward, R. J. 1974. "The Segmental Phonemes of 'Afar,' " BSOAS 37, 385-406.
Morin, Didier. 1977. "Le nom en afar du sud," BSOAS 40, 354-70.
Consonant system:
t̪ k
b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ
m n̪
l
ɾ
Stops: b t̪ d̪ ɗ̣ k ɡ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Stress: phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 4 (3 + very far) + ref
Articles: def
Other Sources:
Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. 1974. "Notes on the Structure of Galab," BSOAS 37, 407-38.
LA
Consonant system:
t k ʔ
b ɓ d ɗ ɡ ɠ
č
ɡ̌
f s š h
ð
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: b ɓ t d ɗ k ɡ ɠ ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f ð s š h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: Ī ɛ̄ ā ʋ̄ ɔ̄
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Diphthongs: iɛ uɔ
Syllable: (C)V(C)
Tones: hi lo hi-fall lo-ris
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3 6
Independent third-person pronouns do not exist in the subject paradigm. In case of ambiguity words like 'man,' 'woman,' 'wife,' 'girl,' 'people,' etc. are used.
Other Sources: Hayward, R. J. 1978-79. "Bayso Revisited: Some Preliminary Linguistic Observations - I & II," BSOAS 41: 539-70 & 42: 101-32.
Consonant system:
pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
tsʔ č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s š h
(z)
m (ʔm) n ʔn
l ʔl
ɾ ʔɾ
Stops: pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: tsʔ č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s (z) š h
Nasals: m (ʔm) n ʔn
Laterals: l ʔl
Vibrants: ɾ ʔɾ
Modified Consonants: v̄ all but h and cʔ
Glides: j w (ʔw)
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i ɛ
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: (ṽ)
Noun
Number: s P p P=paucal (2-6)
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SOV NA/(AN [when no other modifier is present]) GN/NG DN N-NUM N-POSS D+N+Num+A
Other Sources:
Heine, Bernd. 1978. "The Sam Languages: A History of Rendille, Boni and Somali," AFL 6:2, 1-93.
Oomen, Antoinette. 1978. "Focus in the Rendille Clause," SAL 9, 35-65.
Consonant system:
t̪ k
b d̪ ḍ ɡ
č
m n̪
l
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ ḍ k ɡ
Affricates: č
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all ?
Tones: hi mid lo
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:
1 4ie
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SOV NA NG/(GN) ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 1537
Language: Somali
Location: Somalia
Population: 2 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Omo-Tana
Dictionary:
Abraham, R. C. 1964. Somali-English Dictionary. London: Univ of London Press.
Abraham, R. C. 1967. English-Somali Dictionary. London: Univ of London Press.
Philibert, Christophe. 1976. Petit lexique somali-français. Paris: Klincksieck.
Grammar:
Kirk, J. W. C. 1905. A Grammar of the Somali Language. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. [Reprented 1969 by Gregg International, Farnsborough, England]
Moreno, Martino Mario. 1955. Il somalo della Somalia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato.
Pia, John Joseph. 1965. Somali Sounds and Inflections. Bloomington: Indiana Univ Diss.
TextBooks:
Beli C. R. V. 1953. The Somali Language. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
Pia, J. Joseph, Paul D. Black and M. I. Samater. 1966. Beginning in Somali. Syracuse: Program of Eastern African Studies, Syracuse Univ.
Other Sources:
Armstrong, Lilias E. 1934. The Phonetic Structure of Somali. Berlin. [Reprinted 1964 by Gregg Press, Ridgewood, N.J.]
Consonant system:
t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ ɗ̣ ɡ
ɡ̌
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ ɗ̣ k ɡ q ʔ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but q ɡ̌ s χ ʕ h
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Diphthongs: ǝj ǝw
Other Sources: Sasse, Hans-Jürgen. 1979. "Entlehnung morphonemischer regeln im Boni," SUGIA 1, 93-108.
Consonant system:
t (tʔ) k (kʔ) ʔ
b (bʔ) d dʔ (ɟ) ɡ ɡʔ
č (čʔ)
ɡ̌
f s š h
m n ñ ŋ
l
r
Stops: b (bʔ) t (tʔ) d dʔ (ɟ) k (kʔ) ɡ ɡʔ ʔ
Affricates: č (čʔ) ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s š h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels:
ṽ all
v̄̃ all (ã ã̄ only in loanwords)
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
(verb suffixes)
Number: 1539
Language: Oromo
Location: WC Ethiopia (E Welega)
Population: 7 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: Eastern: Lowland: Oromoid
Dictionary: Foot, Edwin C. 1913. A Galla-English, English-Galla Dictionary. Cambridge. [Reprinted 1968 by Gregg Press, Ridgewood, N.J.]
Grammar:
Gragg, Gene. 1976. "Oromo of Wellegga," in NSLE, 166-95.
Bender, Marvin Lionel and Mulugeta Eteffa. 1976. "Galla," in LE, 130-48.
TextBooks:
Launhardt, Johannes. 1973. Guide to Learning the Oromo Language. Addis Ababa.
Other Sources:
Andrzejewski, B. W. 1957. "Some Preliminary Observations on the Borana Dialect of Galla," BSOAS 19, 354-74.
Bender, Marvin L., et al. 1976. "Two Cushitic Languages," in LE.
LA
Consonant system:
(p) pʔ t tʔ k k ʔ
b d ɗ̣ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s š (x) h
(v) (z)
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: (p) pʔ b t tʔ d ɗ̣ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f (v) s (z) š (x) h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Other Sources:
Elderkin, E. Derek. 1976. "Southern Cushitic," in NSLE, 279-97.
Heine, Bernd. 1978. "The Sam Languages: A History of Rendille, Boni and Somali," AFL 6:2, 1-93.
Tucker, A. N., M. A. Bryan and James Woodburn. 1977. "The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison," in Zur Sprachgeschicte und Ethnohistorie in Africa, ed. by W. Möhlig, F. Rottland and B. Heine, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer, 300-22.
Consonant system:
p pʔ mph t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ŋk ʔ
ɓ mb d̪ ɗ nd ɡ ŋɡ
ts tl tlh č
dz ɡ̌
f s ħ ɦ
β v ɣ ʕ
m n̪ ñ
l
r
Stops: p pʔ mph ɓ mb t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ ɗ nd k kʔ ŋk ɡ ŋɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz tl tlh č ɡ̌
Fricatives: f β v s ɣ ħ ʕ ɦ
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Clicks: / n/ /ʔ
Modified Consonants:
Glides: j w
Vowel system:
i u
e o
a
Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Other Sources: Elderkin, E. Derek. 1976. "Southern Cushitic," in NSLE, 279-97.
Consonant system:
t k ʔ
b d ɟ ɡ
f s š x h
β
m n
l
r
Stops: b t d ɟ k ɡ ʔ
Fricatives: β f s š x h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ n
Nc
Glides: w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Other Sources:
Whiteley, W. H. 1958. A Short Description of Item Categories in Iraqw. Kampala: East African Institute of Social Research.
Whiteley, W. H. 1960. "The Verbal Radical in Iraqw," ALS 1, 79-95.
Elderkin, E. Derek. 1976. "Southern Cushitic," in NSLE, 279-97.
Consonant system:
p t k kʷ q qʷ ʔ
b ɓ d (ɗ) ɡ ɡʷ
tsʔ tl
m n ŋ ŋʷ
l ɬ
r
Stops: p b ɓ t d (ɗ) k kʷ ɡ ɡʷ q qʷ ʔ
Affricates: tsʔ tl
Nasals: m n ŋ ŋʷ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ s
Nc ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ū ō ɑ̄
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic
Grammar:
Gray, Louis H. 1934. Introduction of Semitic Comparative Linguistics. New York: Columbia Univ Press.
Moscati, Sabatino, et al. 1964. An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
b d ɡ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t θ ð s
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai au
Syllable: CV(C)
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5d 5mf
3mf 6d 6mf
Syntax: N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1551
Language: Eblaic
Location: N Syria
Population: extinct
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic
Consonant system:
Number: 1552
Language: Akkadian
Location: E Iraq
Population: c. 2000 B.C.
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: East
Dictionary:
Gelb, I. J. 1957. Glossary of Old Akkadian. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.
Grammar:
Reiner, Erica. 1966. A Linguistic Analysis of Akkadian. The Hague: Mouton.
Castellino, G. R. 1970. Grammatica accadica introduttiva. Rome: Istituto di Studi del Vicino Oriente.
Lipin, L. A. 1973. The Akkadian Language. Moscow: Nauka.
Other Sources: Gelb, Ignace J. 1969. Sequential Reconstruction of Proto-Akkadian. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.
Consonant system:
p t k q ʔ
b d ɡ
s š x
z
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q ʔ
Fricatives: s z š x
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t s
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Aramaic
Dictionary: Drower, E. S and R. Macuch. 1963. A Mandaic Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Grammar: Macuch, Rudolf. 1965. Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Other Sources: Yamauchi, Edwin M. 1967. Mandaic Incantation Texts. New Haven: American Oriental Society.
Consonant system:
p t k q
b d ɡ
(č)
(ɡ̌)
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t d k ɡ q
Affricates: (č) (ɡ̌)
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t s
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but æ ǝ
Diphthongs: ei eu ai ou oi au
Stress: non-phonemic (penult/antepenult)
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
*3mf *6mf
Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1556
Language: Assyrian
Dialect: Syriac
Location: NE Syria
Population: 500,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Aramaic
Dictionary:
Oraham, A. 1943. Assyrian-English Dictionary. Chicago.
Costaz, Louis. n.d. Dictionnaire syriaque-français New York: Altai Press.
Grammar:
GD: Garbell, Irene. 1965. The Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Persian Azerbaijan. The Hague: Mouton.
Costaz, Louis. 1955. Grammaire syriaque. Beruit: Imprimérie Catholique.
Tsereteli, K. G.1964. Sovremennyj assirijskij jazyk. Moscow: Nauka.
Arsanis, G. V. 1968. "Sovremennyj assirijskij jazyk," in JNS 5, 489-507.
Jacobi, Heidi. 1973. Grammatik des thumischen Neuaramäisch. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.
Sara, Solomon I. 1974. A Description of Modern Chaldean. The Hague: Mouton.
TextBooks: Robinson, Theodore H. 1962. Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Other Sources:
Hetzron, Robert. 1969. "The Morphology of the Verb in Modern Syriac (Christian Colloquial of Urmi), JAOS 89, 112-27.
Solomon, Zomaya S. and Robert K. Headley, Sr. 1973. "The Phonology of Modern Spoken Syriac," AL 15, 136-47.
Consonant system:
ph th kh (q) ʔ
b d ɡ
č
ɡ̌
(f) θ s š x h
(v) ð z (ž) ɣ
m n
l
ɾ
Stops: ph b th d kh ɡ (q) ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Fricatives: (f) (v) θ ð s z š (ž) x ɣ h
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t ð s l ɾ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ai au
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: North: Northwest
Grammar:
Lambert, Mayer. 1972. Traité de grammaire hébraı̈que. Hildesheim: H. A. Gerstenberg.
Blau, Joshua. 1976. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
TextBooks: Davidson, A. B.1966. An Introductory Hebrew Grammar. Edinburgh: T. T. Clark.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
m n
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cɒ t s
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: aj aw
Stress: mostly final (sometimes penult)
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
*3mf *6mf
Syntax: VSO NA NG ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [1]) N-POSS Num+N+A+D
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1559
Language: Hebrew
Location: Israel
Population: 2.5 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: North: Northwest
Dictionary: Sivan, Reuven and Edward A. Levenston. 1975. The New Bantam-Megiddo Hebrew & English Dictionary. New York: Bantam.
TextBooks:
Rosén, Haiim B. 1966. A Textbook of Israeli Hebrew. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Press.
Mansoor, Menahem. 1972. Modern Hebrew. Madison.
Harrison, R. K. n.d. Teach Yourself Hebrew. London: English Universities Press.
Other Sources: Chayen, M. J. 1973. The Phonetics of Modern Hebrew. The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k (q) ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
t̪s
ʁ
m n̪
l
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ (q) ʔ
Affricates: t̪s
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ʁ
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but tɒ sɒ
Glides: j
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Stress: mostly final (sometimes penult)
Noun
Number: s (d) p (dual only used for body parts and things which come in pairs)
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [1]) N-POSS Num+N +A +D
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Abcarius, J. John. 1974. English-Arabic Reader's Dictionary. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Grammar:
Blachère, Régis. 1958. Éléments de l'arabe classique. Paris: Maisoneuve et Larose.
Yushmanov, N. V. 1961. The Structure of the Arabic Language. Washigton, D.C.: CAL.
Bateson, Mary Catherine. 1967. Arabic Language Handbook. Wahington, D.C.: CAL.
Fischer, Wolfdietrich. 1972. Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
TextBooks:
Ani, Salman H. al- and Jacob Y. Shammas. 1969. A Basic Course of Literary Arabic. Montreal: Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill Univ.
Tritton, Arthur S. 1970. Arabic. London: English Universities Press.
Bishai, Wilson B. 1971. Concise Grammar of Literary Arabic: A New Approach. Dubuque, IA: Kendall & Hunt.
Consonant system:
t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪
ɡ̌
m n
l
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ k q ʔ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all ?
cɒ t d ð s (z) (l)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: aj aw
Syllable: CV(C)
Stress: non-phonemic (last long syllable/initial)
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5d 5mf
3mf 6d 6mf
Syntax: VSO NA NG DN NUM-N/(N-NUM [1,2]) N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1564
Language: Eastern Arabic
Dialect: Saudi Arabian
Location: Saudi Arabia
Population: 50 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Grammar: Schreiber, Giselher. 1970. Der arabische Dialekt von Mekka. Münster: Univ of Münster Diss.
Other Sources:
Ingham, Bruce. 1971. "Some Characteristics of Meccan Speech," BSOAS 34, 273-97.
Bakalla, M. H. 1973. The Phonology and Morphology of Meccan Arabic. London: Univ of London Diss.
E
Consonant system:
t̪ k (q) (ʔ)
b d̪ ɡ
ɡ̌
m n
l
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ k ɡ (q) (ʔ)
Affricates: ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all
cɒ t d s z
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Syllable: CV(C)(C)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: VSO NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1565
Language: Eastern Arabic
Dialect: Palestinian
Location: Israel
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Elihai, Yohanan. 1973. Dictionnaire de l'arabe parlé palestinien. Paris: Klincksieck.
Grammar: Driver, Godfrey Rolles. 1925. A Grammar of the Colloquial Arabic of Syria and Palestine. London: Probsthain and Co.
Consonant system:
t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪
ɡ̌
m n
l
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ k q ʔ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: cɒ t d s z
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I ɛ æ
Back Vowels: ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N/(N-NUM [1]) N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1566
Language: Eastern Arabic
Dialect: Gulf
Location: United Arab Emirates
Population: 50 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Grammar: Qafisheh, Hamdi A. 1977. A Short Reference Grammar of Gulf Arabic. Tucson: Univ of Arizona Press.
TextBooks: Qafisheh, Hamdi A. 1975. A Basic Course in Gulf Arabic. Tucson: Univ of Arizona Press.
Consonant system:
(p) t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
m n
l̪
ɾ
Stops: (p) b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t ð s l
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: ʋ (ɔ)
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs: iw ij aw āw aj āj uw
Syllable: (C)CV(C)(C) (no CCVCC)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N/(N-NUM [1,2]) N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1567
Language: Eastern Arabic
Dialect: Iraqi
Location: Iraq
Population: 50 million ( 10 million)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Clarity, Beverly E., Karl Stowasser and Ronald G. Wolf, eds. 1964. A Dictionary of Iraqi: English-Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Grammar: Erwin, Wallace M. 1963. A Short Reference Grammar of Iraqi Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetwon Univ Press.
TextBooks: Erwin, Wallace M. 1969. A Basic Course in Iraqi Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Other Sources: Ani, Salman H. al-. 1970. Arabic Phonology. The Haque: Mouton.
Consonant system:
(p) t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ (ɡ)
č
ɡ̌
m n̪
l̪
ɾ
Stops: (p) b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ) q ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all
cɒ (p) (b) t (f) ð s (z) (m) (l)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I æ
Back Vowels: ʋ (o)
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: aj āj aw āw iw ēw
Syllable: (C)CV(C)(C)
Stress: non-phonemic (last long syllable/penult in 2-syllable words; antepenult in words of 3 or more syllables)
TextBooks: Kassab, Jean. 1970. Manuel du parler arabe moderne au moyen-orient. Paris: Paul Geuthner.
Consonant system:
t k (q) ʔ
b d
m n
l
r
Stops: b t d k (q) ʔ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all
cɒ t d s z
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Syllable: CV(C)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: VSO/SVO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1569
Language: Eastern Arabic
Dialect: Syrian
Location: Syria
Population: 50 million (7 million)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Stowasser, Karl and Moukhtar Ani. 1964. A Dictionary of Syrian Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Grammar:
Cowell, Mark W. 1964. A Reference Grammar of Syrian Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Grotzfeld, Heinz. 1965. Syrisch-arabische Grammatik. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
TextBooks:
Benedict, Warren C. and Ziad N. Kayyal. 1971. Levantine Arabic Basic Course, 4 vols. Beirut: Foreign Service Institute.
Ferguson, Charles A., et al. 1961. Damascus Arabic. Washington, D.C.: CAL.
Consonant system:
(p) t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ (ɡ)
m n̪
l
r
Stops: (p) b t̪ d̪ k (ɡ) q ʔ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all
cɒ b t d s z m n
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I e æ
Central Vowels: (ǝ)
Back Vowels: ʋ o
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Stress: last long syllable; otherwise initial
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: VSO/SVO NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1570
Language: Eastern Arabic
Dialect: Egyptian
Location: Egypt
Population: 50 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Elias, Edward A. 1962. Practical Dictionary of the Colloquial Arabic of the Middle East. Cairo: Elias' Modern Press.
Grammar:
Tomiche, Nada. 1964. Le parler arabe du Caire. The Hague: Mouton.
Khalafallah, Abdelghany A. 1969. A Descriptive Grammar of Saɛi:di: Egyptian Colloquial Arabic. The Hague: Mouton.
Wise, Hilary. 1975. A Transformational Grammar of Spoken Egyptian Arabic. Oxford: Blackwell.
TextBooks:
Mitchell, T. F. 1962. Collloquial Arabic. London: English Universities Press.
Harrell, Richard S., Laila Y. Tewfik and George D. Selim. 1963. Lessons in Colloquial Egyptian Arabic. Washigton, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Other Sources: Harrel, Richard S. 1957. The Phonelogy of Colloquial Egyptian Arabic. New York: American Council of Learned Societies.
Consonant system:
t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
m n̪
l̪
ɾ
Stops: b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all
cɒ t d s z
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I (e) (æ)
Back Vowels: ʋ (o) ɑ
Long Vowels: ī ē ǣ ū ō ɑ̄
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Grammar: Tsiapera, Maria. 1964. A Descriptive Analysis of Cypriot Maronite Arabic. The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č
ɡ̌
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
cj p k v z n l
cɒ t ð s
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1572
Language: Eastern Arabic
Dialect: Chad
Location: Chad
Population: 50 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Roth-Laly, Arlette. 1969-72. Lexique des parlers arabes tchado-soudanais, 4 vols. Paris: CNRS.
Grammar: Hagège, Claude. 1973. Profil d'un parler arabe du Tchad. Paris: Paul Geuthner.
TextBooks: Abu Absi, Samir and Andre Sinaud. 1968. Basic Chad Arabic. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Consonant system:
t c k ʔ
b d ɗ ɟ ɡ ɠ
f s š χ h
z
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: b t d ɗ c ɟ k ɡ ɠ ʔ
Fricatives: f s z š χ h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ ɟ f r only
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i (e)
Central Vowels: ɨ a
Back Vowels: u o ɑ
Long Vowels: ī ē ɨ̄ ā ū
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SVO NA NG ND NUM-N/(N-NUM [1,2]) N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1573
Language: Western Arabic
Dialect: Tunisian
Location: Tunisia
Population: 50 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Nicolas, A. 1938. Dictionnaire arabe-français. Idiome tunisien. Tunis: C. Abella.
TextBooks: Inglefield, Patrick L., Kacem Ben-Hamza and Toufik Abida. 1970. Tunisian Arabic Basic Course, 2 vols. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Other Sources: Maamouri, Mohamed. 1967. The Phonology of Tunisian Arabic. Ithaca: Cornell Univ Diss.
Consonant system:
t k q
b d ɡ
m n
l
r
Stops: b t d k ɡ q
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ b t d ð s m l r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ǣ ū
Stress: non-phonemic (final/penult)
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1574
Language: Western Arabic
Dialect: Algerian
Location: Algeria
Population: 50 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Belkhassem, Ben Sédira. 1954. Dictionnaire français-arabe de la langue parlé en Algérie. Algiers.
Grammar: Grand'henry, Jacques. 1976. Les parlers arabes de la région du mzab. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
TextBooks: Tapiéro, Norbert. 1971. Manuel d'arabe algérien moderne. Paris: Klincksieck.
Consonant system:
t̪ k q (ʔ)
b d̪ ɡ
ɡ̌
m n̪
l
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ k ɡ q (ʔ)
Affricates: ɡ̌
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t d s z l r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ej ou
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary:
Harrell, Richard S., ed. 1966. A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic: Arabic-English. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Sobelman, Harvey and Richard S. Harrell, eds. 1963. A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic: English-Moroccan. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Grammar:
Harrell, Richard S. 1962. A Short Reference Grammar of Moroccan Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Marçais, P. 1977. Esquisse grammaticale de l'arabe maghrébin. Paris: Maisonneuve.
TextBooks:
Harrell, Richard S. 1965. A Basic Course in Moroccan Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ Press.
Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1973. An Introduction to Moroccan Arabic. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies.
Consonant system:
(p) t̪ k q ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
m n̪
l̪
ɾ
Stops: (p) b t̪̪ d̪ k ɡ q ʔ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but z
cɒ t d s ɾ (b z m l)
cʷ b k ɡ q f χ ʁ m
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: e
Central Vowels: ɐ
Back Vowels: o
Long Vowels: ī ā ū
Diphthongs: aj aw ej ew
Stress: non-phonemic (final/penult)
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def indef
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO/(VSO) NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS D+N+A
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1576
Language: Western Arabic
Dialect: Mauritanian
Location: Mauritania
Population: 50 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Grammar: Cohen, David. 1963. Le dialecte arabe hassaniya de Mauritanie. Paris: Klincksieck.
TextBooks: Leriche, A. 1952. Cours de langue maure. Saint Louis: IFAN.
Consonant system:
t̪ c k qɒ ʔ
b d̪ ɟ ɡ
m n̪ ñ
l̪
r
Stops: b t̪ d̪ c ɟ k ɡ qɒ ʔ
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cɒ t d q ð s z l r (b ɡ f m n)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: I
Central Vowels: ǝ ɐ
Back Vowels: ʋ
Long Vowels: ī ā ū
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s d p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SVO NA NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Number: 1577
Language: Maltese
Location: Malta
Population: 50 million (325,000)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: Central: Canaanite
Dictionary: Busuttil, Edgar D. 1941. Kalepin (dizjunarju) malti-ingliz. Valletta, Malta: St. Joseph Institute.
Grammar: Aquilina, Joseph. 1959. The Structure of Maltese. Malta: Royal Univ of Malta.
Other Sources:
Borg, Alexander. 1973. "The Segmental Phonemes of Maltese," Linguistics 109, 5-11.
Fenech, Edward. 1978. Contemporary Journalistic Maltese. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
ts č
dz ɡ̌
m n̪
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts dz č ɡ̌
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but v
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Diphthongs: ie ew iw ej aj aw
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def (indef)
Pronouns:
1 4
2 5
3mf 6
Syntax: SVO NA/(AN) NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1578
Language: Epigraphic South Arabian
Location: Yemen
Population: extinct
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South
Consonant system:
Number: 1579
Language: South Arabian
Dialect: Shahari
Location: S Oman
Population: 426,000 (5,000)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South
Other Sources: Johnstone, T. M. 1975. " The Modern South Arabian Languages," AFL 1, 93-121.
Consonant system:
t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
ɡ̌
f θ s̪ s̪ʔ š sʔ
ð ðʔ z̪
m n
l ʔl ɬ
ɮ
r ʔr
Stops: b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Fricatives: f θ ð ʔð s̪ s̪ʔ z̪ š sʔ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l ʔl ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r ʔr
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e ɛ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o ɔ
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all ?
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2mf 5d 5mf
3mf 6d 6mf
Syntax: NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1580
Language: South Arabian
Dialect: Harsusi
Location: South Yemen
Population: 426,000 (400,000)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South
Dictionary: Johnstone, T. M. 1977. Harsusi Lexicon. London: Oxford Univ Press.
Other Sources: Johnstone, T. M. 1975. "The Modern South Arabian Languages," AFL 1, 93-121.
Consonant system:
t̪h t̪ʔ kh kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
ɡ̌
f θ s̪ s̪ʔ š šʔ
ð ʔð z̪
m n
l ʔl ɬ
ɮ
r ʔr
Stops: b t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ kh kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ɡ̌
Fricatives: f θ ð ʔð s̪ s̪ʔ z̪ š šʔ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l ʔl ɬ ɮ
Vibrants: r ʔr
Glides: j w
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Long Vowels: ī ē ā ū ō
Diphthongs: aj aw ej ew ēw īw ōj ūj
Noun
Number: s (d) p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4
2mf 5d 5mf
3mf 6d 6mf
Syntax: NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1581
Language: Geez
Location: N Ethiopia
Population: extinct
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: North
Other Sources:
Bender, Marvin L. 1976. "Two Ethio-Semitic Languages," in LE.
LA
Consonant system:
p pʔ t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ kʷ kʔʷ ʔ
b d̪ d̪ʔ ɡ ɡʷ
f s̪ s̪ʔ
m n̪
l̪
r
Stops: p pʔ b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ d̪ʔ k kʔ ɡ kʷ kʔʷ ɡʷ ʔ
Fricatives: f s̪ s̪ʔ
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all but cʔ ʔ h
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: VSO AN/NA NG N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Comments: Geez is still used as a liturgical language by the Orthodox church.
Number: 1582
Language: Tigre
Dialect: Mensa
Location: NW Eritrea
Population: 117,000
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: North
Dictionary:
Da Milano, Prospero Maria. 1936. Vocabulario pratico: italiano-tigray-amarico. Milan: Genio.
Littman, Enno and Maria Höfner. 1962 Wörterbuch der Tigrè-Sprache: Tigrè-Deutsch-Englisch. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.
Grammar:
Leslau, Wolf. 1945. "Grammatical Sketches in Tigré (North Ethiopic), Dialect of Mensa," JAOS 65, 164-203.
TextBooks: Camperio, Manfredo. 1936. Manuale pratico della lingua tigrè con due dizionarietti. Milan: V. Hoepli.
Other Sources: Palmer, Frank R. 1962. The Morphology of the Tigre Noun. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, Univ of London.
Consonant system:
pʔ t tʔ k qʔ ʔ
b d ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s sʔ
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: pʔ b t tʔ d k ɡ qʔ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s sʔ
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e æ
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Stress: VH
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SOV AN/NA NG DN/ND NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP
Number: 1583
Language: Tigrinya
Location: N Ethiopia (W Tigre)
Population: 5.1 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: North
Dictionary: Bassano, Francesco de. 1918. Vocabolario tigray-italiano e repertorio italiano-tigray. Rome: C. de Luigi.
Grammar: Leslau, Wolf. 1941. Documents tigrigna. Paris: Klincksieck.
TextBooks: Conti Rossini, Carlo. 1940. Lingua tigrina. Milan: Mondadori.
Other Sources: Bender, Marvin L., et al. 1976. "Two Ethio-Semitic Languages," in LE, 99-199.
Consonant system:
(pʔ) t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ kʷ kʔʷ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ ɡʷ
(č) (čʔ)
(ɡ̌)
f s̪ s̪ʔ
m n̪ (ñ)
l̪
r
Stops: (pʔ) b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ kʷ kʔʷ ɡʷ ʔ
Affricates: (č) (čʔ) (ɡ̌)
Fricatives: f s̪ s̪ʔ
Nasals: m n̪ (ñ)
Laterals: l̪
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but ʔ ħ ʕ h
cʷ k kʔ ɡ
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Diphthongs: æj ɑj aj æw ɑw oj
Noun
Number: s d
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
Syntax: SOV AN GN/NG DN/(ND) NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post: PREP/(POST)
Number: 1584
Language: Amharic
Location: NC Ethiopia
Population: 8 million
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Transversal
Dictionary: Leslau, Wolf. 1976. Concise Amharic Dictionary. Berkeley: Univ of California Press.
Grammar:
Leslau, Wolf. 1969. An Amharic Reference Grammar. Los Angeles: Dept. of Near Eastern and African Languages, UCLA.
Cohen, Marcel. 1970. Traité de langue amharique. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.
TextBooks: Leslau, Wolf. 1968. Amharic Textbook. Berkeley: Univ of California Press.
Consonant system:
(p) (pʔ) t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ (s̪ʔ) š h
z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l
ɾ
Stops: (p) (pʔ) b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ (s̪ʔ) z̪ š ž h
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: ɾ
Modified Consonants:
c̄ all but ʔ h
cʷ all (k kʔ ɡ most common)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Stress: non-phonemic
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f (sg only)
Demonstratives: 2 + ref
Articles: def ( indef)
Pronouns:
1 4
2mf 5mf
3mf 6mf
politeness: 2 pol & 3 pol
Language: East Gurage
Alternate Name: Silt'e
Dialect: Harari
Location: EC Ethiopia (NW Harerge)
Population: 35,000 (13,000)
Classification: Afro-Asiatic: Semitic: West: South: Ethiopic: South: Transversal
Grammar:
Cohen, Marcel. 1931. Études d'éthiopien méridional. Paris: Paul Geuthner.
Cerulli, Enrico. 1936. La lingua e la storia di Harar. Rome: Istituto per l'Oriente.
Other Sources: LA
Consonant system:
t tʔ k qʔ ʔ
b d ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s š χ h
z
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: b t tʔ d k ɡ qʔ ʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s z š χ h
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄
Diphthongs: ie uo
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def (indef)
Consonant system:
(pʔ) t̪ t̪ʔ k kʔ kʷ kʔʷ
b bʷ d̪ ɡ ɡʷ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ s̪ʔ š x h hʷ
z̪ ž
m n ñ
l
r
Stops: (pʔ) b bʷ t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k kʔ ɡ kʷ kʔʷ ɡʷ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ s̪ʔ z̪ š ž x h hʷ
Nasals: m n ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Modified Vowels: vowel harmony
Diphthongs: æj aj ǝj oj æw aw
Consonant system:
p t̪ t̪ʔ k qʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ š ç
z̪ ž
m n̪ ñ
l
r
Stops: p b t̪ t̪ʔ d̪ k ɡ qʔ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž ç
Nasals: m n̪ ñ
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants: c̄ all ?
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ǝ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but ǝ
Stress: non-phonemic
Consonant system:
ph pʔ t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ k kh kʔ
b d̪ ɡ
č čʔ
ɡ̌
f s̪ š ç x
z̪ ž
m n̪
(l̪)
r
Stops: ph pʔ b t̪ t̪h t̪ʔ d̪ k kh kʔ ɡ
Affricates: č čʔ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ z̪ š ž ç x
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: (l̪)
Vibrants: r
Modified Consonants:
c̄
cʷ p b k kʔ ɡ f x m cj k kʔ ɡ (t)
Glides: j w
Vowel system:Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: ɨ ǝ ɐ a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ ?
Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
Stress: penult
Noun
Number: s p
Gender: m f
Demonstratives: 2
Articles: def (indef)